A  SUGGESTED  TIMELINE
for the Development of Magical Miniature Landscapes
PART  I,  Up to 899

© 2005-2010  Robert J. Baran
All Rights Reserved.


Timeline, Part II, 900-1799
Timeline, Part III, 1800-present
Timeline, Part IV, NOTES


INTRODUCTION: 
I am truly honored to present this Timeline.  This page is a work-in-progress and visitors must use it with some caution.  I do ask that any materials quoted from this page be properly cited:

Baran, Robert J.  "A Suggested Timeline for the Development of Magical Miniature Landscapes,"
http://www.phoenixbonsai.com/BigPicture/Timeline.html, version dated 26 July 2010.

 This is very important as this page will be amended from time to time.  In addition to new material being continually discovered and included here, citations are being gathered from all my old notes.  Some of my earlier research grouped references by chapter, and I am now teasing out the specific source of each of the above events if it isn't cited elsewhere on this website.  When all the sources have been located I will do a "final" renumbering of all the footnotes.  Please be aware that it is not intended that every entry here has "equal weight."  In compiling this tapestry, so to speak, we have used threads of different textures and materials in an attempt to best portray the story of which we actually know relatively little.


APPROX.
 		CHINA
 		JAPAN
 		OTHER
B.C.E.
* World's oldest known pottery dating back to c.16,000 B.C.E.: Yuchanyan cave in Hunan Province in south central China. (1a)
* Pottery dating back to c.13,000 B.C.E.: Miaoyan in Guilin in Guangxi Province in southern China. (1b)
* Pottery dating back to 9,000 B.C.E.: the Immortal's Cave on Mount Huifeng, Lishui County, Jiangsu Province in eastern China. (1c)
* Last glacial period within current ice age was ending by approx. 8,700 B.C.E..  Despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe, East Asia, Taiwan and Japan had remained unglaciated except at higher elevations.  This was caused by ice sheets in Europe producing extensive anticyclones above them which generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from Sea of Japan).  Relative warmth of Pacific Ocean and presence of large east-west mountain ranges were secondary factors preventing continental glaciation in Asia.  Present-day subtropical regions had also lost most of their forest cover, including southern China, where open woodland became dominant due to drier conditions.  In northern China -- unglaciated despite its cold climate -- mixture of grassland and tundra had prevailed, and even here, northern limit of tree growth was at least twenty degrees further south than today. (2)
* A pottery cauldron containing boiled medicinal herbs (unearthed in 2001) at Kuahuqiao in Xiaoshan County, Zhejiang Province indicates that Neolithic people had realized some natural herbal medicine use as early as 6,000 B.C.E..   (3) 		* Pottery apprently made in northern tip of Honshu island, Japan, 14,500-14,000 B.C.E.  (4)
* 10,000 B.C.E., applique-ware ceramics made in south and spread to northern and eastern regions of islands. In two and a half millenia, new pottery tradition developed w/complex surface designs in what would be central Japan's Kanto district. Cord-marked (jomon) designs would become dominant throughout islands.  (5)
* c.24,000 B.C.E., 4½" tall female figurine, with exaggerated hips and breasts, the Dolni Vestonice Venus from Czechoslovakia, part of oldest known set of sculptures as an early attempt at fired ceramic (14,000 years older than first ceramic pots and jars).  (6)
* Earliest Near Eastern sun-dried pottery: Iran, c.9,000 B.C.E.  (7)
* Apples cultivated in southwestern Asia around 7,000 B.C.E. and oranges cultivated in India and Tigris River Valley within the next millenium.  (8a)
* Grapevines cultivated in Armenia no later than around 6,000 B.C.E.   (8b)
* By 6,000 B.C.E., Korean Chulmun Period (to 1300 B.C.E.) was producing applique-ware ceramics on east-central coast. Within a millenium, this pottery was distinct tradition w/regional variations.  (9)
* By 4,000 B.C.E., earliest Britons were already pruning young trees to harvest timber and fuel.   (10)
3000
B.C.E. 		* Earthenware shallow basins/flattened low-rimmed bowls were known as pen.
* Earliest date of appearance of wheel in China, resulting in better class of thrown pottery. (11a)
* Earliest possibly domesticated silkworm cocoon from southern Shansi Province by this time. (11b)
* Some jade being worked and used by this time, probably brought in from trade with the Siberian region. (12)
* Indo-Europeans from west of central Asian steppe brought new cultural components to Yellow River Valley c.2300 B.C.E., combining advanced technological techniques w/native-developed agricultural culture. Language of Huang Di, the Yellow Emperor, and his immigrating people -- known to us as being written in "ancient Chinese characters" -- rose to pass on their history here, and not tales of various earlier indigenous east Asian cultures dating back even hundreds of thousands of years. (Hence disparity between archaeological sites in Yellow and Yangzi River valleys and traditional historical records w/regard to beginning of agriculture in that region.) (13)
* Oranges used in China from southeast Asia or India by 2200 B.C.E. (14)

XIA DYNASTY (legendary, c. 2200-1766 B.C.E.), equivalent? to Erlitou culture (2000-1600 B.C.E.) discovered in 1959 in Yanshi, Henan Province. (15)

* In Middle Jomon Period (2500-1500 B.C.E.), the Jomon migrated from Kanto plain into surrounding mountainside and began to live in very large villages, developing very simple agriculture or proto-agriculture.  (16)

 * Olives cultivated in Crete and Syria.  (17)
* During Early Harappan period (Early Bronze Age in India, about 3200-2600 B.C.E.), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade w/Central Asia and Iranian plateau.
(Early Bronze Age in Near East -- area of modern Middle East -- was c.3500-2000 B.C.E., while in Central Europe it was as late as 1800–1600 B.C.E..)  (18)
2000
B.C.E.
* Ginseng trade between China and pre-Babylonia Akkad. (19)

SHANG DYNASTY (1766 B.C.E.-1122 B.C.E., alternately given as c.1500 B.C.E.-c.1050 B.C.E.)

* (The term "Bronze Age" signifies elsewhere a period when bronze tools replaced stone tools, and were later replaced by iron ones. In China, bronze was in use pre-Shang and, although higher-temperature iron smelting technology would arrive by mid-Zhou, bronze vessels would make up majority of metal vessels all the way through Later Han period.) (20)

* Ayurvedic medicine in India made use of hundreds of herbs, some kept readily at hand by being grown in containers. Many of those plants became naturally dwarfed after a few seasons. (21)
* c.1550 B.C.E., a 65 ft. long Egyptian medical scroll listed about 800 medicinal drugs, including many herbs and spices. (Would be discovered in 1884 C.E. by Georg Ebers and named the Ebers Papyrus.) (22)
1500
B.C.E.
* Bronze pen as ritualistic serving dishes.
* Practice of contemplating stones and rocks and using them as garden features ("stone arranging") in use. (23)
* Large numbers of silk fragments show silkworm was being cultivated by this time for Chinese silk industry. (24)
* Chrysanthemum ("autumn flower") was first cultivated in China as flowering herb and is described in writings as early as the 15th cent. B.C.E. (25)
* Earliest known hunting-ground for imperial pleasure existed during late Shang and measured up to 200 km in length. Built on natural terrain and filled w/exotic plants, animals, birds and fish, it held tall, square earthen man-made platform. On this the emperor was said to perform cosmic rituals, study constellations, observe weather, and enjoy other recreational activities. Some six centuries later, size of this earthen platform was dramatically increased and elaborate palace buildings were constructed to accommodate the merrymaking of emperors and their nobles. (26)
* "Mandate of Heaven" concept of cyclical authority begun. When members of a dynasty were deviant and otherwise no longer worthy, the protection or Mandate was transferred to the virtuous head of a new dynasty. (27)
* "Proto-porcelain" or "primitive porcelain" made of kaolin clay, of compact texture, and surprisingly lustrous, apparently was made by 11th cent.B.C.E.. (True porcelain -- high temperature fusion of pure clay with feldspar and quartz -- would occur twelve hundred years later.) (28)

ZHOU DYNASTY (1122 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.)

* A bronze spade closely resembling more modern ones was used as early as 1100 B.C.E. (29)

* c.1500 B.C.E., Sumerians of the Middle East had primitive single-tube seed drill (which never made its way to Europe). This device allowed farmers to sow seeds at specific depths at specific seed rate, instead of simply casting seeds on the ground, by hand, for them to grow where they landed (broadcasting). Some of broadcast seeds were cast on unprepared ground where they never germinated, germinated prematurely only to be killed by frost or died from lack of access to water and nutrients. (30)
* In Egypt, 31 young myrrh trees were transported in soil-filled wicker baskets from Punt on Somali Coast and planted in stone pots that had drainage holes in their bases at memorial temple garden of Queen Hatshepsut (c.1502-1452 B.C.E.). (About twenty-five years later trees were uprooted and burned as Thutmose III sought to erase her name from history.) (31)
* By 1,500 B.C.E., agricultural developing in northern Korea w/stone and wood farming implements. Undecorated (mumun) pottery began to replace Chulmun. (32)
* Mid-14th cent. B.C.E., early representation of garden from tomb of pharaoh Akhnaton. Shows plants and trees growing thickly and without absolute order within an enclosure of strictest symmetry, where outside walls are matched by square shape of pool in center. (Such formality would be continuing theme in Europe from Middle Ages up to current times.) From end of that century comes small painting of rectangular ornamental fish-pond, around which are symmetrically-set fruit trees and possibly vines. Also, plants were treated architecturally and trained on lattice structures to artificial shapes (referred to as arbors, bowers, or pergolas). (33)
* Late 12th cen. B.C.E. Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I collected cedars and box trees for his botanical collections from countries he conquered. (34)
1000
B.C.E. 		* Evidence of plant grafting as a propagation technique. (35)
* Evidence of silk strands in an Egyptian mummy by this time suggests very early exchanges of goods between China and Egypt, probably from overland routes that included Persia. (Process remained carefully guarded secret, backed up by death penalty in China.) (36)
* Chinese cut down some forests to create more farmland. (The deforestation would lead to soil erosion, floods, and drought in millennia to come.) (37)

* Palm trees clipped into columnar forms by Egyptians: possibly first instance of topiary-type work. (38)
* Charaka Samhita (~ 900 B.C.E. ) was first recorded treatise fully devoted to concepts and practice of Ayurveda. The work listed 341 plants and plant products classified into 50 therapeutic groups. The Sushruta Samhita (~ 600 B.C.E. ), specially emphasizing surgery, described 395 medicinal plants, 57 drugs of animal origin, and 64 minerals and metals as therapeutic agents. (39)
* By 7th cent. B.C.E., Phoenician colonists had planted olive trees on opposite end of Mediterranean Sea, on Iberian Peninsula. (40)
* Assyrian ruler Sennacherib (r.701-681 B.C.E.) gathered together in his gardens in Nineveh aromatic plants from Syria and fruit trees from many countries. In one place he cut five-acre temple garden out of solid rock, by digging out planting holes and five-foot-deep water channels. (41)
* By 650 B.C.E., Greek hillsides were bare of trees cut down to provide wood for houses, ships, and charcoal used by metalworkers. This led to soil erosion and loss of fertility in many areas. By 594 B.C.E., Athenian statesman Solon forbade export of any agricultural produce. (This edict would result in more olive trees planted, but as their roots do not hold soil together, erosion of Greek hillsides would be hastened over the next two to three centuries. Rich silver mines also played a part in this.) (42)
* Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 B.C.E.) said to have built terraced Hanging Gardens of Babylon in imitation of Persian landscape for his homesick princess wife. Covered about one-quarter square mile and reached to about 70' high. Was thickly planted w/trees of every kind. Some type of machine, possibly waterwheels, kept whole irrigated from Euphrates river. (43)
500
B.C.E.
* Legendary mystic Lao-zi (c.604?-? B.C.E. ) taught concept of Dao, the path or way natural events take w/spontaneous creativity, non-interference, and regular alternation between extremes which are not exclusive but mutually complementary. Wise ruler and sage give up all striving and ideally do not interfere in people's lives but lead by example and subtle direction. (44)
* Ethical teacher Kongfu-zi (c.551-479 B.C.E. urged system of morality and statecraft to bring about peace, justice, and universal order. Believed strongly in importance of ritual and ceremony, value of politeness and good manners, and importance of education and self-cultivation, especially for ideal gentleman. His interpretation of dao was "the Way of running a state so that good order and harmony can prevail among men." Said to have once met Lao-zi. (45)
* Spring and Autumn (722 - 481 B.C.E. ) or Warring States period (481 - 221 B.C.E. ) Tripod Basin, earliest known high-fired stoneware pen, closely follows shape of contemporary bronze tripod water basins of Eastern Zhou. (46)
* Sixth cent. B.C.E. saw mastery of cast iron technology which created cast-iron hoes and led to sharp axes that opened vast areas to forestry; mold-board plow and annealing (heating then cooling) techniques for making a malleable, nonshattering cast iron three centuries later; and swan-neck hoe capable of weeding around plants without damaging them two centuries after that. (Although blast furnace technology would exist in the West (Scandanavia) by late eighth cent. C.E. and cast iron would be widely available in Europe half a millenium later, it would not be until the seventeenth cent. C.E. that plow and seed drill technology from China would arrive in the Netherlands and England, instigating agricultural revolution.) (47)
* Mid-first millenium B.C.E. 'Yu Gong' ('Tribute of Yü') chapter of the book Shu Jing (Classic of History) mentioned the ancient northeastern province of Qingzhou, whose "articles of tribute were salt, fine cloth of dolichos fibre, productions of the sea of various kinds; with silk, hemp, lead, pine trees, and strange stones, from the valleys of Dai." Term kuai shih at time referred more to ornamental semiprecious stones than to garden rocks of curious shapes a thousand years later. (48)
* Fifth cent. B.C.E. records of poets and scholars tell of trips into mountains for inspiration. Also, praises of chrysanthemums recorded from this time onward. (Yellow-flowered variety mentioned first.) (49a)
* Record during the reign of Duke Wei of Ch'i (357-320 B.C.E.) of unsuccessful mission to discover Island of P'eng-Lai, most famous of Isles of Blessed believed by Daoists to be opposite coast of east-central Jiangsu province in Eastern sea. (Possibly originated from occasional experiences there of amazing mirage effects when on-lookers can see what appear to be islands and trees in distance off coast?) (49b)
* Third cent. B.C.E., Zou Yan first introduced/synthesized philosophy for understanding all processes of nature as Five Agents Theory, from which was derived belief in potency of replicas in miniature and correlative symbols. (50a)
* Also from this time, treatise described 300-year-old method of improved crop growth by planting in rows w/multi-tube seed drill rather than simply broadcast-scattering of seed. (India soon adopted this also, but Europe would not try this method for two millenia.) Another text from this time describes connection between types of vegetation which grow in certain areas and minerals to be found underground at same localities. (First European example of geo-botanical prospecting would be about sixteen hundred C.E.) (50b)
* About 250 B.C.E.) Daoist ideas were almalgamated with other beliefs which had as their goals the maintenance of health and vigor and achieving immortality. This new "religious Daoism" had saints and deities, and was administered by priests. Popular religious Daoism believed in magic, miracles, and alchemy. It became and would remain one of most broad-based religions of China. (51)

QIN DYNASTY (221 B.C.E.-207 B.C.E.)

* Earliest mention of imperial garden began by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di: 120,000m in circumference, held 300 palaces and several lakes, largest being 300 hectares in area. There was scale model of conquered territories, a more powerful index of conquest than usual undifferentiated treasure-heap (plunder or tribute), world in miniature crafted to make visible actions and relations in real-sized world. Parts of emperor's garden correspond to parts of realm under emperor's power, thus, image of the realm. Also, assembling of these sub-gardens by one man into single space is feat of one man, kind of royal portrait. (Similar building and landscaping programs would be initiated to recall particular feats and characteristics of individual rulers down through centuries to even Qing dynasty). And, in 219 B.C.E. this First Emperor sent expedition of 3,000 young men and maidens, led by a Daoist priest, to find tree and fruit which confer immortality in Isles of Blessed. They did not return and legend suggests that they were the people who became [some of] ancestors of Japanese. (Other Chinese Emperors said to have tried to reach Isles of the Blessed, and irritated by lack of success had their magicians and scholars put to death. Some of legends may allude to historic attempts to colonise some of islands of Japan. Only later would legends of Isles of Blessed be seen as allegories of spiritual search, not as real places to be visited.) Qin Shi Huang Di also said to have had dwarf as court jester. (52)

WESTERN HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.E.-8 B.C.E.)

* Development of hillside upward slope-sited dragon-kiln or "climbing-kiln" (longyao) at least by this time in Zhejiang.  Flues and chimney were at upper end of chamber which could in a few centuries reach high-firing temperature of 1300°C.  (This fuel-economized, fast-firing, and rapid-cooling design would then be perfected here in centuries between Han and Tang dynasties, and would become compartmented by Song.  By Tang would be adopted as standard in ceramic industry in this and neighboring provinces until advent of modern firing and mechanization.) (53a)
* Earliest conceptual model of garden design in China included "one lake, three hills" by first emperor Gaozu.  Lake had three mountains representing legendary islands in land of Immortals, an enduring theme for imperial and some private gardens ever since. (53b)
* c.140 B.C.E., new Emperor WuDi sent emissary Jang Qian halfway around world to Bactria and Sogdiana to seek an east-west alliance against the Hsiung Nu (Huns). News of Jang Qian and of Serica (land of silk) would reach Rome and caravans would begin to carry first apricots and peaches to Europe, while grapes, pomegranates, walnuts and other plants would be introduced to China. WuDi also built replicas of islands of Immortals in great lake in his park/gardens. (54)
* 101 B.C.E., Chinese ships reached the east coast of India w/help from navigational compass pioneered by the Chinese using orientating effect of lodestone (magnetite, an ore resulting from iron mining and working beginning eight centuries earlier). (First mention in Europe of magnetic compass would be in 1190 C.E.) (55)

* Siddhartha Gautama (c.563-477 B.C.E. ), historical Buddha ("Awakened One"), in India taught Middle Way and Four Noble Truths. (56)
* As early as fifth cent. B.C.E., fame of Indian steel and iron had made its way to Persia and to Rome. (57)
* 431 B.C.E., pepper from India fairly common in Greece as a medicine. (58)
* Latter half of 4th cent. B.C.E., first described gardens in Athens, sacred grove of the Academy founded by Plato. Plane trees and olives (said to have been reared from cuttings taken from sacred olive in Erechtheum) grew there, watered by river Cephissus. (59)
* Indian king Chandragupta Maurya (r.322-298 B.C.E.) had park surrounding his palace which included both indigenous and imported from abroad evergreen trees.
* Indian king Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.) planted groves of trees for public recreation, and later rulers followed his example. Asoka also adopted Buddhism. He established India's first hospitals and herbal gardens and placed them under Buddhist control in opposition to the Hindu Brahmins. (60)
* By c.300 B.C.E., Indian Ayurvedic texts had been translated into Greek. (61)
* By 300 B.C.E., local bronze industries emerged in northwest Korea and spread southward during next century. Local iron technology arose under Chinese influence, and these products would be sought after by Chinese as well as Japanese elites. (62)
* Theophrastus (c.370-c.287 B.C.E.), Greek philosopher known as the father of botany, and a favorite pupil of Aristotle. Thought to have written more than 200 books, of which only two survive, History of Plants and Causes of Plants, and these only in part. He also developed first known botanical garden. These two works, almost alone, carried Greek learning about plants and gardens for sixteen centuries, to the Renaissance. Many of his observations are current down to our own time. (63)
* 221 B.C.E. Qin dynasty in China completed its conquest of neighboring states and became first to rule over united China. Qin Empire, however, collapsed after its founder's death. In wreckage of empire, Chinese commander in south built his own kingdom of Nam Viet, including young state of Au Lac. In 111 B.C.E., Chinese armies conquered Nam Viet and absorbed it into growing Han Empire. After briefly ruling through local chieftains, Chinese rulers attempted to integrate Vietnam politically and culturally into Han Empire and Chinese administrators were imported to replace local landed nobility. Political institutions patterned after Chinese model were imposed, and Confucianism became official ideology. Chinese language was introduced as medium of official and literary expression, and Chinese ideographs were adopted as written form for Vietnamese spoken language. Chinese art, architecture, and music exercised powerful impact on their Vietnamese counterparts. (64)
* 108 B.C.E., Chinese invasion of northwest Korea (following expansion of Yan state into Manchuria two cent. earlier) established four-cent. Chinese commanderies at Lelang (near modern Pyongyang) as political and military arm of those dynasties and major contact point between advanced Chinese civilization and local populace. Koreans formed useful political alliances and acquired from Chinese residents advanced technologies including wet-rice cultivation, iron technology, and high-fired ceramic technology. (65)
100
B.C.E. 		* Tea drinking, made like soup from green, unfermented leaves of wild bush related to camelia, first started in south China in this dynasty. Plants cultivated for culinary and medical use. (66a)
* First herbal here put in writing at least by 2nd cent. B.C.E.  Contained descriptions of some 365 drugs from 252 plants. (66b)
* Importations of new aromatics took place under Han Emperor Wu in consequence of far-reaching expansion politics of this monarch and newly opened commercial relations of China. New type of vessel was created: xunlu (later termed boshanlu), incense burners in form of mountain peaks which rose over the waves and symbolized abode of the Immortals, the mythic Islands of the Blessed. Some burners rested on small pen dish to either catch hot embers or hold miniature symbolic ocean. Some boshanlu may have also served as three-dimensional maps of known or unknown lands.
* China sanctioned official trade in silk w/foreigners in 2nd cent. B.C.E .  (67)
* Yayoi culture (300 B.C.E. -300 C.E. ) resulted from introduction of wet cultivation of rice, iron and bronze metalworking, and potter's wheel from China and Chinese colonies in Korea. Shinto has kami (divine forces) in nature and virtues of loyalty and wisdom. (68)
* Chinese magician/physician Xu Fu sent c.221 B.C.E. here w/600 youths in quest for Elixir of Life at magical island in Eastern Sea. (69)
* By 15 B.C.E., Roman-style propagation pots in use in Jericho. Shaped like upside-down bottles w/holes perforated near the necks and packed w/soil, these would hold a young branch or shoot for two years until rooting occurred. Then separation would be made from parent plant and transplantation to new location would be made.
* Romans seem to have invented art of topiary around end of first cent. B.C.E.  Metal one-piece spring hand-shears, an essential tool for trimming bushes into geometric shapes, were used for topiary work since at least this time. (70)
0 * About 2 C.E. , Buddhist missionaries from Bactria court visited the Han court. (71)

EASTERN HAN DYNASTY (25-220 C.E.)

* Confucianism now became entirely divorced from ancient magical rites of wu sorcerer/psychic priests who had been assisting in rituals for over fifteen centuries. (72)
* Daoism, with its doctrine of non-action, its mysticism -- including recreating magical sites in miniature to focus these properties -- and its disregard of rites and ceremonies esteemed by Confucians, was deeply rooted along with wu in cultural life of ordinary people. (73)
* Period of great creativity in imperial gardening and development and growth of private, residential gardens as smaller versions thereof. (74)
* By this time, bronze trees (some w/ceramic bases) were grave objects typical of Sichuan province and southwest China. These so-called "money trees" consisted of trunk from which sprouted many branches, each bearing depictions of Daoist immortals, figures and animals who had associations w/afterlife. On branches were replicas of contemporary coinage, presumably so deceased person would have access to endless supplies of money in afterlife. May have also embodied concept of Enlightenment if they were associated w/bodhi tree and Buddhism. (Approx. 12 cm high ones would be made of gold during Tang in Chang'an. Trees bearing jewels are widely known in other Asian civilizations. Indian description 'silver trunk, gold branches, emerald leaves, pearls for fruits' was possibly most influential in China. Han Wudi's imperial hunting park described as being planted w/ten [full-sized] trees of white silver and ten of yellow silver.) (75)
* By 83 C.E., amber being imported from Burma.  Its "magical" property (static electricity) allowed amber to pick up mustard seeds. (76)
* In 57 C.E. first embassy from this Land of Wa reached Luoyang court and paid tribute to Han Emperor. (Wa was comprised of about hundred separate tribal communities without writing or political cohesion.) (77)
* Romans saw trees in pots in Egypt, brought back idea and there was craze in Rome for growing trees in pots, especially lemons and oranges.
* Although topiary art [would come] to mean plant sculpture by Renaissance period, the word topia/topiarius had other meanings in antiquity, one of which was "miniature gardens," such as those found in the peristyles (columned porch or open colonnade in building that surrounds court that may contain an internal garden) of Roman houses. These miniature gardens were probably derived from landscapes in bas-relief on certain courtyard walls that date back to Hellenistic times... Some of houses at Pompeii (dating no later than 79 C.E.) had mural paintings of gardens, illusionistic wall paintings that added false perspective to enclosed gardens; others had, in addition, three-dimensional miniature landscapes... Also found there was a little house having wall with flues to allow heat from stove in house to warm the bricks and thus the air, and tiers of masonry on which plants plants would be displayed. There are also indications of the existence of a screen of rough glass or mica: this was an early version of a greenhouse. On Pliny's Tuscan estate dwarf trees and gardens were laid out in imitation of country scenes. Art was elaborate, highly stylized and sometimes over-the-top status symbol for sybaritic villa life, complex and labor-intensive, appealing to Roman sense of taste and achieved by Roman dependance on slavery. Clipped box, cypress, or dwarf plane trees could display name of gardener or owner of villa, or could represent animals, battles and heroic characters from history and mythology, obelisks, and all sorts of images. (78)
100
C.E.
* 107, Han history reference to 160 prisoners of war sent by Japan to China as tribute to acquire bronze implements and iron ore which the island peoples needed from the mainland. (79a)
* Parthian crown prince An Shi-gao fled to China c.148 and began systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, including material on dhyana (use of various meditational exercises as a way to enlightenment). So-called Dhyana school of early Chinese Buddhism began, and translations sometimes used Daoist terminology to convey non-physical concepts. Also, floral altar decorations were introduced and floral designs started to become dominant force in Chinese art. (79b)
* China (as Seres) was beginning to be shown on Roman maps. (80)
* An embassy, sent by Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 166 C.E  returned from China w/gift of Chinese human dwarfs for Roman emperor and, perhaps, it is no coincidence that dwarf statuary long remained popular as garden art. Trade throughout Indian Ocean was extensive from 2nd cent., and many trading ports w/links to Roman communities have been identified in India and Sri Lanka along route used by Roman mission. (81)
200

THREE KINGDOMS period (220-280)

SIX DYNASTIES period (in south, 265-589), including JIN DYNASTY (265-420)

* Legend of Fei Jiang-feng who had "power of shrinking and collecting in urn mountains and streams... trees and rivers." Would be retold through Tang and Song dynasties.
* Pre-Tang literature also frequently mentioned aberrations of vital fluids of Nature, such as stones shaped naturally like living creatures: tortoise, horse, man, or the Buddha, and fossiliferous rocks containing "stone swallows" and other monsters. In addition, there was mass of folklore about haunted stones in wild rugged places, curiously shaped rocks associated w/dragons, devils, saints, and gods. (82)
* More than thirty states had been united by shamaness-queen Pimiko, who presided over complex culture and c.239 established diplomatic relations with Chinese Wei dynasty (220-264). (83)

300
* At beginning of century, royal family of Western Jin moved from Luoyang to Nanking on lower southern reaches of Yangzi, where very favorable climate and soils permitted making of spectacular gardens -- still using Han techniques. (84)
* 304, text describes earliest known use of biological pest control: carnivorous reddish-yellow ants to attack insects which damage mandarin oranges. (Seventeen centuries later would be subject of study in West.) (85)

SIXTEEN KINGDOMS period (in north, 316-589)

* In 4th and 5th cent., immense expansion of Buddhism in northern China, area being in contact w/Central Asiatic trade route which communicated w/India. Buddhism and Daoism- wu directed their appeal to magical side of human nature which was neglected by Confucian orthodoxy. Former two faiths located their temple sites in forests or near mountains and were enhanced by traditional gardening arts. (86)
* Indian Ayurvedic texts were translated into Tibetan and Chinese by this time. (87)

* 313, Korean Koguryo Kingdom overthrew Chinese military colony at Lelang. Paekche Kingdom to south sought help from Yamato region (Japan) for assistance in troops and supplies. Kaya region of southern peninsular coast was Yamato's entire source of iron at time, so Yamato helped stop Koguryo's southern push. (88)
* 372, Buddhism brought into Korea from China. (89)
400
* By 406, ginger was such a favorite spice that it was being grown in pots onboard ships so it could be eaten fresh. (90)
* Private gardens first created now, grew from striving for spiritual freedom, as opposed to materialistic pleasure that motivated building of imperial gardens and parks. Scholars became hermits in opposition to the status quo, escaping society in order to preserve their integrity. Private garden based on Daoism -- 'simple, formless, desireless, without striving' -- was articulation of desire for graceful, happy, long life in retirement -- but also was expression of denial, self-protection, and seclusion in response to buffetings of unstable and chaotic society. Remote but scenic places were chosen for beautiful villas of high artistic quality, self-sustaining and made to imitate and complement nature, including creation of scenes using rocks, trees, and water. (91)
* A scholar familiar with Chinese religious writings, Wang-In (Wani), spent time here as early as 404 when he brought ten copies of Analects of Confucius. (92)
* Around 400, the chrysanthemum was introduced from China. (93)
* From 421 - 478, King of Wa sent tribute to Southern Court in China. (94)
* Japan's most sacred spot, Ise shrine, dates from this century. Was consecrated to sun-goddess, supposed ancestress of emperor. Its open pebble enclosure is called yuniwa, "purified space of ground." Derived from this is niwa, a space of ground "set aside for special purposes," which could be religious or political. Some of these would become gardens, present-day meaning of niwa. (95)

500
* Use of air-layering as method of propagation recorded by this time. (96)
* Monk Bodhidarma (c. 470-543?) opposed Indian Buddhist practice, which had developed along more doctrinaire and ritualistic lines, turning away from meditation and concept of each person's ability to possess and know his/her own Buddha nature. Bodhidharma set out to discover how he might restore this essential component and travelled widely. Quest eventually took him to Shaolin temple in Henan, China, where after nine years of sitting meditation he conveyed his teachings to monk Huike (487-593). Chan-na (aka Chan ) school of Buddhism thus originated when Bodhidarma-brought Indian dhyana teachings merged w/Chinese Daoism. Chan maintained its more active, vital spirit even as other Buddhist sects were becoming more rigidly formalized. (97)
* c.550, preface to otherwise undistinguished Ancient Painters' Classified Record by Xie He contains "Six points to consider when judging a painting" which formed pivot around which all subsequent criticism in China has revolved. These principles were also integrated into gardening arts of Southern China. (98)
* Frequent communications and trade w/India and Persia from this time. (99)

SUI DYNASTY (581-618)

* By 552, Chinese Buddhism introduced into Japan and first monastery established 35 years later. (100)
* Incense stand similar to boshanlu was sent from China to Empress-Regent Suiko (b.554, r.592-628). (101)
* Also in 552, silkworms smuggled out of China in bamboo tubes, along w/secrets of industry to Byzantine emperor Justinian in Constantinople. (102)
600
* "Grand Canal" involved rebuilding existing canals (including from Chang'an to north China Plains) and digging new channels to link Yangzi and Yellow rivers, and continuing south of Yangzi across to eastern plains as far as Hangzhou in Zhejiang province. Result was world's largest artificial waterway. (Canal still in use today.) Now possible for product of northern kilns to be marketed in populous region around mouth of Yangzi, and vice-versa for celadons of Zhejiang and Jiangsu to come northwards and to rob northern kilns, particularly those of Henan, of their incentive to technical progress. (103)

TANG DYNASTY (618-906)

* 621, Imperial bureau established for manufacture of porcelain. Technology would advance further during this dynasty. (104)
* Mid-century, court painter Yan Liben's Tribute Offered by a Vassal depicted a scene of at least twenty-five foreigners presenting gifts to the emperor, including long columns of rock riddled w/hollows and exquisitely shaped rocks apparently as miniature landscapes. Earliest known depiction of these from anywhere. Also, oldest written references to miniature landscapes date from this time, but these indicate such landscapes were already developed and in fashion. First major influx of foreigners into rebuilt capital city of Chang'an occurred in 630 when Eastern Turks were defeated by Tang dynasty army and thousands of Turkish families moved to city to live. Rulers of neighboring empires would often send their children to live in Chang-an as pledge of their loyalty. One prized commodity in China was silver imported from Iran, for which demand soon outstripped supply. Chinese silversmiths started work, but as they had no developed industrial tradition, many imported forms and decorations were imitated. (That is why some of shapes of Tang silver, for example, look foreign.) (105)
* Shen-xiu (605?-706) founded so-called Northern School of Chan, which was strongly marked by traditional Indian Meditation Buddhism. At end of century received patronization of Empress Wu (who found it politically opportune to side w/school of Buddhism that deviated from position of established schools). Northern School, however, declined and died out after few generations. (106)
* Suiko's nephew, Prince Regent Shotoku (573-621), promulgated 17-article constitution, sent large embassy in 607 to China (start of two century tradition of scholarly missions and intercourse), and added house figure to incense stand: thought to be beginning of bonkei. (107)
* Censer crowned w/small rock representing sacred Chinese/Buddhist mountain was received by way of Korea.
* Craftsmen from Korea constructed several replicas of this sacred mountain for Court, some copies placed next to temples, others smaller sized. (From late 4th to mid-7th cent. Japan adventured into Korea through generations of sporadic fighting and intrigue involved w/incessant warfare among three Korean kingdoms and dozens of smaller states there. Much loot, tribute and presents gotten, along w/Korean aristocratic elites and artisans and some Chinese craftsmen. Japanese Iron Age Yamato standard of living tremendously accelerated because of all of this.) (108)
* Buddhism established as official religion in 624.
* Government, literature, and culture based on Chinese model. (109)
* An envoy sent by Shotoku to China for cultural guidance returned w/also appreciation of Buddhistic practice of floral altar worship. After Prince Regent died, this Ono-no-imoko retired from Court and started to formulate basic rules of arranging flowers w/stylized designs at Rokkaku-do temple. First school of arrangement came into existence, Ikenobo. (There were two hundred Japanese participating in diplomatic missions to China at this time.) (110)

YAMATO period (645-711)

* Between 652 and 798, eastern Roman emperor sent 7 diplomats to Chinese capital Chang-an, Arabian caliph sent 36, and Persia sent 29. (111)
* 660, Shilla Kingdom allied w/China to overthrow Paekche Kingdom; Koguryo fell shortly afterwards in 668. Despite Chinese Tang influences and Buddhism, Korea peninsula-ruling Shilla remained largely tribal in culture. Dwarf potted trees were introduced from China to Korea during this time. (112a)
* 679, creation by China of the protectorate general of An Nam (Vietnam). (Au Lac kingdom had been vassal of China since 196 B.C.E. and was annexed in 111 B.C.E. ) (112b)
700
* Hui-neng (638-713) founded so-called Southern School of Chinese Chan w/radical rejection of mere book learning and down-to-earth practicality combined w/dry humor. Gave Chan, which had been traditional Indian Buddhism, typical Chinese stamp at least as strongly marked by Daoism as by Buddhism. (113)
* c.706, Crown Prince Zhang Huai's tomb paintings included depictions of two ladies-in-waiting offering penjing, miniature rockery landscapes in shallow dishes.
* Relations w/some 70 countries and regions; height of what one day would be called Silk Road trade along vast overland network of local trade connections stretching to Mediterranean Sea. (Route had been in use since prehistoric times.) Capital of Chang'an was one of world's political, economic and cultural centers. At 80 sq. km. area, was largest city in world w/one million inhabitants + one million more in metropolitan areas. Zhang Huai's tomb (above) depicts on eastern wall ambassadors from eastern Roman empire, Korea, and northeastern regions, while western wall shows ambassadors from Dashi (now Arabia), Tibet, and Gaochang (near Turfan in Xinjiang province). (114)
* Second greatest poet Du Fu (712-770) had description of rock landscape shrunk into the space of one cubic foot. (115)
* Lu Yu's Classic of Tea (c.760-780) promoted tea drinking to aesthetic experience among leisured and well-to-do. Advocated use of green glazed tea bowls because this improved depth of tea's green color. (116a)
* Development of private gardens reached its maturity as scholar-hermits no longer felt compelled to venture into wilderness as their only means of "escaping" society. Instead, they built urban and suburban dwellings for themselves and led secluded life of art and poetry writing. Luoyang at century's end had more than thousand private gardens scattered throughout city and its suburbs. Capital of Chang'an had even greater amount of gardens. (116b) 		* In 702, great University for promotion of Medicine, Astrology and other Chinese sciences established at seat of government. (117)

NARA period (712-793)

* 717, botanical garden added to University. (118)
* Other gardens being built were called shima ("islands"), scaled down models of sea and island scenery -- and ancient Chinese Islands of the Blessed. (119)
* c.759, Man'yōshū, earliest anthology of Japanese poetry speaks of world of mountains, rivers, flora and fauna in anthromorphic terms, animistic terms, investing each entity with living personality infused w/kami, or mysterious spiritual energy and presence. As no area of island nation is more than seventy miles from sea, mountains are always in view, and rainfall is ample, always was strong awareness of beauties of nature among people here. This anthology codified and molded Japanese infatuation w/natural world different from Chinese view and would influence poetry through the centuries. (120)

HEIAN period (794-1185)
* c.795, regulations for the administration of towns in Charlemagne's empire list seventy-three plants and fruit-trees which were recommended to be grown. (121)
800 * Pai-chang Huai-hai (720-814) founded Chan monastic tradition by establishing precise rules for life and daily routine. Chan masters and their students had hitherto been "guests" in monasteries of other Buddhist schools and had adhered to monastic rules of these schools. Independent Chan monasteries were now possible because of new rules which stressed importance of combining meditative practice w/daily work in monastery and in fields. Pai-chang is not known for his organizational talent alone, rather primarily for his Chan realization and his great wisdom. (122)
* As power of Tang emperors declined, anti-Buddhist movement arose, first among Daoists and then Confucian officials and scholars. Buddhism seen as foreign religion, and there was much resentment at immense land and wealth monasteries had acquired. With 845 ban on foreign merchants, religions, etc., many monasteries closed and either demolished or converted to other use; much reduced number of monks. Buddhism would continue in China and at times flourish (under foreign Yuan and Qing dynasties) but never again attain immense prestige and status it enjoyed at its zenith in early Tang. (123)
* Han Yu (768-824) wrote verse in praise of dwarf potted landscape. (124)
* Bai Zu Yi (aka Po Chü-i, 772-846) wrote verse about miniature mountain landscape. (125) 		* Saichō (767-822), founder of Tendai school of Buddhism, first broached subject of Buddhahood for nonsentient beings by affirming that "trees and rocks have Buddha-nature." (126)
* During early years, most of NW part of capital was a settlement of naturalized Koreans and Chinese who had come as craftsmen, architects, and garden makers to help build this new city. Centerpiece of Heian courtly life would be palace and its garden. (127)
* Art of arranging flowers spread from temples to courts of nobles and feudal lords. Evolved was more artistic system w/formal and elaborate designs, heavily vested in rituals and religious concepts. Structure was composed of three radical lines based on Confucian teachings that "Man identifies himself w/Heaven and Earth." (128)
* 838, last diplomatic mission to China had up to six hundred Japanese, including monk Ennin who wrote diary of his visit. Japanese had conceived of these missions as being from one equal to another and never conceded any superiority to Chinese emperor, hence size of these affairs. (129)



Timeline, Part II, 900-1799
Timeline, Part III, 1800-present
Timeline, Part IV, NOTES
 
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