A  SUGGESTED  TIMELINE
for the Development of Magical Miniature Landscapes
PART  I

© 2005-2009  Robert J. Baran
All Rights Reserved.



NOTE:  I am truly honored to present this Timeline.  This page is a work-in-progress and visitors must use it with some caution.  I do ask that any materials quoted from this page be properly cited:

Baran, Robert J.  "A Suggested Timeline for the Development of Magical Miniature Landscapes,"
http://www.phoenixbonsai.com/BigPicture/Timeline.html, version dated 06/29/2009.

 This is very important as this page will be amended from time to time.  In addition to new material being continually discovered and included here, citations are being gathered from all my old notes.  Some of my earlier research grouped references by chapter, and I am now teasing out the specific source of each of the above events if it isn't cited elsewhere on this website.  When all the sources have been located I will do a "final" renumbering of all the footnotes.  Please be aware that it is not intended that every entry here has "equal weight."  In compiling this tapestry, so to speak, we have used threads of different textures and materials in an attempt to best portray the story of which we actually know relatively little.


APPROX.
 		CHINA
 		JAPAN
 		OTHER
B.C.E.
* Pottery dating back to c.13,000 B.C.E.: Miaoyan in Guilin in Guangxi Province in southern China. (1a)
* Pottery dating back to 9,000 B.C.E.: the Immortal's Cave on Mount Huifeng, Lishui County, Jiangsu Province in northern China. (1b)
* Last glacial period within current ice age was ending by approx. 8,700 B.C.E..  Despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe, East Asia, Taiwan and Japan had remained unglaciated except at higher elevations.  This was caused by ice sheets in Europe producing extensive anticyclones above them which generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from Sea of Japan).  Relative warmth of Pacific Ocean and presence of large east-west mountain ranges were secondary factors preventing continental glaciation in Asia.  Present-day subtropical regions had also lost most of their forest cover, including southern China, where open woodland became dominant due to drier conditions.  In northern China -- unglaciated despite its cold climate -- mixture of grassland and tundra had prevailed, and even here, northern limit of tree growth was at least twenty degrees further south than today. (2)
* A pottery cauldron containing boiled medicinal herbs (unearthed in 2001) at Kuahuqiao in Xiaoshan County, Zhejiang Province indicates that Neolithic people had realized some natural herbal medicine use as early as 6,000 B.C.E..   (3) 		* World's earliest known fired pottery: northern tip of Honshu island, Japan, 14,500-14,000 B.C.E.  (4)
* 10,000 B.C.E., applique-ware ceramics made in south and spread to northern and eastern regions of islands. In two and a half millenia, new pottery tradition developed w/complex surface designs in what would be central Japan's Kanto district. Cord-marked (jomon) designs would become dominant throughout islands.  (5)
* c.24,000 B.C.E., 4½" tall female figurine, with exaggerated hips and breasts, the Dolni Vestonice Venus from Czechoslovakia, part of oldest known set of sculptures as an early attempt at fired ceramic (14,000 years older than first ceramic pots and jars).  (6)
* Earliest Near Eastern sun-dried pottery: Iran, c.9,000 B.C.E.  (7)
* Apples cultivated in southwestern Asia around 7,000 B.C.E. and oranges cultivated in India and Tigris River Valley within the next millenium.  (8)
* Grapevines cultivated in Armenia no later than around 6,000 B.C.E.   (9)
* By 6,000 B.C.E., Korean Chulmun Period (to 1300 B.C.E.) was producing applique-ware ceramics on east-central coast. Within a millenium, this pottery was distinct tradition w/regional variations.  (10)
3000
B.C.E. 		* Earthenware shallow basins/flattened low-rimmed bowls were known as pen.
* Earliest date of appearance of wheel in China, resulting in better class of thrown pottery. (11a)
* Earliest possibly domesticated silkworm cocoon from southern Shansi Province by this time. (11b)
* Some jade being worked and used by this time, probably brought in from trade with the Siberian region. (12)
* Indo-Europeans from west of central Asian steppe brought new cultural components to Yellow River Valley c.2300 B.C.E., combining advanced technological techniques w/native-developed agricultural culture. Language of Huang Di, the Yellow Emperor, and his immigrating people -- known to us as being written in "ancient Chinese characters" -- rose to pass on their history here, and not tales of various earlier indigenous east Asian cultures dating back even hundreds of thousands of years. (Hence disparity between archaeological sites in Yellow and Yangzi River valleys and traditional historical records w/regard to beginning of agriculture in that region.) (13)
* Oranges used in China from southeast Asia or India by 2200 B.C.E. (14)

XIA DYNASTY (legendary, c. 2200-1766 B.C.E.), equivalent? to Erlitou culture (2000-1600 B.C.E.) discovered in 1959 in Yanshi, Henan Province. (15)

* In Middle Jomon Period (2500-1500 B.C.E.), the Jomon migrated from Kanto plain into surrounding mountainside and began to live in very large villages, developing very simple agriculture or proto-agriculture.  (16)

 * Olives cultivated in Crete and Syria.  (17)
* During Early Harappan period (Early Bronze Age in India, about 3200-2600 B.C.E.), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade w/Central Asia and Iranian plateau.
(Early Bronze Age in Near East -- area of modern Middle East -- was c.3500-2000 B.C.E., while in Central Europe it was as late as 1800–1600 B.C.E..)  (18)
2000
B.C.E.
* Ginseng trade between China and pre-Babylonia Akkad. (19)

SHANG DYNASTY (1766 B.C.E.-1122 B.C.E., alternately given as c.1500 B.C.E.-c.1050 B.C.E.)

* (The term "Bronze Age" signifies elsewhere a period when bronze tools replaced stone tools, and were later replaced by iron ones. In China, bronze was in use pre-Shang and, although higher-temperature iron smelting technology would arrive by mid-Zhou, bronze vessels would make up majority of metal vessels all the way through Later Han period.) (20)

* Ayurvedic medicine in India made use of hundreds of herbs, some kept readily at hand by being grown in containers. Many of those plants became naturally dwarfed after a few seasons. (21)
* c.1550 B.C.E., a 65 ft. long Egyptian medical scroll listed about 800 medicinal drugs, including many herbs and spices. (Would be discovered in 1884 C.E. by Georg Ebers and named the Ebers Papyrus.) (22)
1500
B.C.E.
* Bronze pen as ritualistic serving dishes.
* Practice of contemplating stones and rocks and using them as garden features ("stone arranging") in use. (23)
* Large numbers of silk fragments show silkworm was being cultivated by this time for Chinese silk industry. (24)
* Chrysanthemum ("autumn flower") was first cultivated in China as flowering herb and is described in writings as early as the 15th cent. B.C.E. (25)
* Earliest known hunting-ground for imperial pleasure existed during late Shang and measured up to 200 km in length. Built on natural terrain and filled w/exotic plants, animals, birds and fish, it held tall, square earthen man-made platform. On this the emperor was said to perform cosmic rituals, study constellations, observe weather, and enjoy other recreational activities. Some six centuries later, size of this earthen platform was dramatically increased and elaborate palace buildings were constructed to accommodate the merrymaking of emperors and their nobles. (26)
* "Mandate of Heaven" concept of cyclical authority begun. When members of a dynasty were deviant and otherwise no longer worthy, the protection or Mandate was transferred to the virtuous head of a new dynasty. (27)
* "Proto-porcelain" or "primitive porcelain" made of kaolin clay, of compact texture, and surprisingly lustrous, apparently was made by 11th cent.B.C.E.. (True porcelain -- high temperature fusion of pure clay with feldspar and quartz -- would occur twelve hundred years later.) (28)

ZHOU DYNASTY (1122 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.)

* A bronze spade closely resembling more modern ones was used as early as 1100 B.C.E. (29)

* c.1500 B.C.E., Sumerians of the Middle East had primitive single-tube seed drill (which never made its way to Europe). This device allowed farmers to sow seeds at specific depths at specific seed rate, instead of simply casting seeds on the ground, by hand, for them to grow where they landed (broadcasting). Some of broadcast seeds were cast on unprepared ground where they never germinated, germinated prematurely only to be killed by frost or died from lack of access to water and nutrients. (30)
* In Egypt, 31 young myrrh trees were transported in soil-filled wicker baskets from Punt on Somali Coast and planted in stone pots that had drainage holes in their bases at memorial temple garden of Queen Hatshepsut (c.1502-1452 B.C.E.). (About twenty-five years later trees were uprooted and burned as Thutmose III sought to erase her name from history.) (31)
* By 1,500 B.C.E., agricultural developing in northern Korea w/stone and wood farming implements. Undecorated (mumun) pottery began to replace Chulmun. (32)
* Mid-14th cent. B.C.E., early representation of garden from tomb of pharaoh Akhnaton. Shows plants and trees growing thickly and without absolute order within an enclosure of strictest symmetry, where outside walls are matched by square shape of pool in center. (Such formality would be continuing theme in Europe from Middle Ages up to current times.) From end of that century comes small painting of rectangular ornamental fish-pond, around which are symmetrically-set fruit trees and possibly vines. Also, plants were treated architecturally and trained on lattice structures to artificial shapes (referred to as arbors, bowers, or pergolas). (33)
* Late 12th cen. B.C.E. Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I collected cedars and box trees for his botanical collections from countries he conquered. (34)
1000
B.C.E. 		* Evidence of plant grafting as a propagation technique. (35)
* Evidence of silk strands in an Egyptian mummy by this time suggests very early exchanges of goods between China and Egypt, probably from overland routes that included Persia. (Process remained carefully guarded secret, backed up by death penalty in China.) (36)
* Chinese cut down some forests to create more farmland. (The deforestation would lead to soil erosion, floods, and drought in millennia to come.) (37)

* Palm trees clipped into columnar forms by Egyptians: possibly first instance of topiary-type work. (38)
* Charaka Samhita (~ 900 B.C.E. ) was first recorded treatise fully devoted to concepts and practice of Ayurveda. The work listed 341 plants and plant products classified into 50 therapeutic groups. The Sushruta Samhita (~ 600 B.C.E. ), specially emphasizing surgery, described 395 medicinal plants, 57 drugs of animal origin, and 64 minerals and metals as therapeutic agents. (39)
* By 7th cent. B.C.E., Phoenician colonists had planted olive trees on opposite end of Mediterranean Sea, on Iberian Peninsula. (40)
* Assyrian ruler Sennacherib (r.701-681 B.C.E.) gathered together in his gardens in Nineveh aromatic plants from Syria and fruit trees from many countries. In one place he cut five-acre temple garden out of solid rock, by digging out planting holes and five-foot-deep water channels. (41)
* By 650 B.C.E., Greek hillsides were bare of trees cut down to provide wood for houses, ships, and charcoal used by metalworkers. This led to soil erosion and loss of fertility in many areas. By 594 B.C.E., Athenian statesman Solon forbade export of any agricultural produce. (This edict would result in more olive trees planted, but as their roots do not hold soil together, erosion of Greek hillsides would be hastened over the next two to three centuries. Rich silver mines also played a part in this.) (42)
* Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 B.C.E.) said to have built terraced Hanging Gardens of Babylon in imitation of Persian landscape for his homesick princess wife. Covered about one-quarter square mile and reached to about 70' high. Was thickly planted w/trees of every kind. Some type of machine, possibly waterwheels, kept whole irrigated from Euphrates river. (43)
500
B.C.E.
* Legendary mystic Lao-zi (c.604?-? B.C.E. ) taught concept of Dao, the path or way natural events take w/spontaneous creativity, non-interference, and regular alternation between extremes which are not exclusive but mutually complementary. Wise ruler and sage give up all striving and ideally do not interfere in people's lives but lead by example and subtle direction. (44)
* Ethical teacher Kongfu-zi (c.551-479 B.C.E. urged system of morality and statecraft to bring about peace, justice, and universal order. Believed strongly in importance of ritual and ceremony, value of politeness and good manners, and importance of education and self-cultivation, especially for ideal gentleman. His interpretation of dao was "the Way of running a state so that good order and harmony can prevail among men." Said to have once met Lao-zi. (45)
* Spring and Autumn (722 - 481 B.C.E. ) or Warring States period (481 - 221 B.C.E. ) Tripod Basin, earliest known high-fired stoneware pen, closely follows shape of contemporary bronze tripod water basins of Eastern Zhou. (46)
* Sixth cent. B.C.E. saw mastery of cast iron technology which created cast-iron hoes and led to sharp axes that opened vast areas to forestry; mold-board plow and annealing (heating then cooling) techniques for making a malleable, nonshattering cast iron three centuries later; and swan-neck hoe capable of weeding around plants without damaging them two centuries after that. (Although blast furnace technology would exist in the West (Scandanavia) by late eighth cent. C.E. and cast iron would be widely available in Europe half a millenium later, it would not be until the seventeenth cent. C.E. that plow and seed drill technology from China would arrive in the Netherlands and England, instigating agricultural revolution.) (47)
* Mid-first millenium B.C.E. 'Yu Gong' ('Tribute of Yü') chapter of the book Shu Jing (Classic of History) mentioned the ancient northeastern province of Qingzhou, whose "articles of tribute were salt, fine cloth of dolichos fibre, productions of the sea of various kinds; with silk, hemp, lead, pine trees, and strange stones, from the valleys of Dai." Term kuai shih at time referred more to ornamental semiprecious stones than to garden rocks of curious shapes a thousand years later. (48)
* Fifth cent. B.C.E. records of poets and scholars tell of trips into mountains for inspiration. Also, praises of chrysanthemums recorded from this time onward. (Yellow-flowered variety mentioned first.) (49a)
* Record during the reign of Duke Wei of Ch'i (357-320 B.C.E.) of unsuccessful mission to discover Island of P'eng-Lai, most famous of Isles of Blessed believed by Daoists to be opposite coast of east-central Jiangsu province in Eastern sea. (Possibly originated from occasional experiences there of amazing mirage effects when on-lookers can see what appear to be islands and trees in distance off coast?) (49b)
* Third cent. B.C.E., Zou Yan first introduced/synthesized philosophy for understanding all processes of nature as Five Agents Theory, from which was derived belief in potency of replicas in miniature and correlative symbols. (50)
* Also from this time, treatise described 300-year-old method of improved crop growth by planting in rows w/multi-tube seed drill rather than simply broadcast-scattering of seed. (India soon adopted this also, but Europe would not try this method for two millenia.) Another text from this time describes connection between types of vegetation which grow in certain areas and minerals to be found underground at same localities. (First European example of geo-botanical prospecting would be about sixteen hundred C.E.) (51)

QIN DYNASTY (221 B.C.E.-207 B.C.E.)

* Earliest mention of imperial garden began by Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di: 120,000m in circumference, held 300 palaces and several lakes, largest being 300 hectares in area. There was scale model of conquered territories, a more powerful index of conquest than usual undifferentiated treasure-heap (plunder or tribute), world in miniature crafted to make visible actions and relations in real-sized world. Parts of emperor's garden correspond to parts of realm under emperor's power, thus, image of the realm. Also, assembling of these sub-gardens by one man into single space is feat of one man, kind of royal portrait. (Similar building and landscaping programs would be initiated to recall particular feats and characteristics of individual rulers down through centuries to even Qing dynasty). And, in 219 B.C.E. this First Emperor sent expedition of 3,000 young men and maidens, led by a Daoist priest, to find tree and fruit which confer immortality in Isles of Blessed. They did not return and legend suggests that they were the people who became [some of] ancestors of Japanese. (Other Chinese Emperors said to have tried to reach Isles of the Blessed, and irritated by lack of success had their magicians and scholars put to death. Some of legends may allude to historic attempts to colonise some of islands of Japan. Only later would legends of Isles of Blessed be seen as allegories of spiritual search, not as real places to be visited.) Qin Shi Huang Di also said to have had dwarf as court jester. (52)

WESTERN HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.E.-8 B.C.E.)

* Development of hillside upward slope-sited dragon-kiln or "climbing-kiln" (longyao) at least by this time in Zhejiang.  Flues and chimney were at upper end of chamber which could in a few centuries reach high-firing temperature of 1300°C.  (This fuel-economized, fast-firing, and rapid-cooling design would then be perfected here in centuries between Han and Tang dynasties, and would become compartmented by Song.  By Tang would be adopted as standard in ceramic industry in this and neighboring provinces until advent of modern firing and mechanization.) (53a)
* Earliest conceptual model of garden design in China included "one lake, three hills" by first emperor Gaozu.  Lake had three mountains representing legendary islands in land of Immortals, an enduring theme for imperial and some private gardens ever since. (53b)
* c.140 B.C.E., new Emperor WuDi sent emissary Jang Qian halfway around world to Bactria and Sogdiana to seek an east-west alliance against the Hsiung Nu (Huns). News of Jang Qian and of Serica (land of silk) would reach Rome and caravans would begin to carry first apricots and peaches to Europe, while grapes, pomegranates, walnuts and other plants would be introduced to China. WuDi also built replicas of islands of Immortals in great lake in his park/gardens. (54)
* 101 B.C.E., Chinese ships reached the east coast of India w/help from navigational compass pioneered by the Chinese using orientating effect of lodestone (magnetite, an ore resulting from iron mining and working beginning eight centuries earlier). (First mention in Europe of magnetic compass would be in 1190 C.E.) (55)

* Siddhartha Gautama (c.563-477 B.C.E. ), historical Buddha ("Awakened One"), in India taught Middle Way and Four Noble Truths. (56)
* As early as fifth cent. B.C.E., fame of Indian steel and iron had made its way to Persia and to Rome. (57)
* 431 B.C.E., pepper from India fairly common in Greece as a medicine. (58)
* Latter half of 4th cent. B.C.E., first described gardens in Athens, sacred grove of the Academy founded by Plato. Plane trees and olives (said to have been reared from cuttings taken from sacred olive in Erechtheum) grew there, watered by river Cephissus. (59)
* Indian king Chandragupta Maurya (r.322-298 B.C.E.) had park surrounding his palace which included both indigenous and imported from abroad evergreen trees.
* Indian king Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.) planted groves of trees for public recreation, and later rulers followed his example. Asoka also adopted Buddhism. He established India's first hospitals and herbal gardens and placed them under Buddhist control in opposition to the Hindu Brahmins. (60)
* By c.300 B.C.E., Indian Ayurvedic texts had been translated into Greek. (61)
* By 300 B.C.E., local bronze industries emerged in northwest Korea and spread southward during next century. Local iron technology arose under Chinese influence, and these products would be sought after by Chinese as well as Japanese elites. (62)
* Theophrastus (c.370-c.287 B.C.E.), Greek philosopher known as the father of botany, and a favorite pupil of Aristotle. Thought to have written more than 200 books, of which only two survive, History of Plants and Causes of Plants, and these only in part. He also developed first known botanical garden. These two works, almost alone, carried Greek learning about plants and gardens for sixteen centuries, to the Renaissance. Many of his observations are current down to our own time. (63)
* 221 B.C.E. Qin dynasty in China completed its conquest of neighboring states and became first to rule over united China. Qin Empire, however, collapsed after its founder's death. In wreckage of empire, Chinese commander in south built his own kingdom of Nam Viet, including young state of Au Lac. In 111 B.C.E., Chinese armies conquered Nam Viet and absorbed it into growing Han Empire. After briefly ruling through local chieftains, Chinese rulers attempted to integrate Vietnam politically and culturally into Han Empire and Chinese administrators were imported to replace local landed nobility. Political institutions patterned after Chinese model were imposed, and Confucianism became official ideology. Chinese language was introduced as medium of official and literary expression, and Chinese ideographs were adopted as written form for Vietnamese spoken language. Chinese art, architecture, and music exercised powerful impact on their Vietnamese counterparts. (64)
* 108 B.C.E., Chinese invasion of northwest Korea (following expansion of Yan state into Manchuria two cent. earlier) established four-cent. Chinese commanderies at Lelang (near modern Pyongyang) as political and military arm of those dynasties and major contact point between advanced Chinese civilization and local populace. Koreans formed useful political alliances and acquired from Chinese residents advanced technologies including wet-rice cultivation, iron technology, and high-fired ceramic technology. (65)
100
B.C.E. 		* First herbal here put in writing at least by 2nd cent. B.C.E.  Contained descriptions of some 365 drugs from 252 plants. (66)
* Importations of new aromatics took place under Han Emperor Wu in consequence of far-reaching expansion politics of this monarch and newly opened commercial relations of China. New type of vessel was created: xunlu (later termed boshanlu), incense burners in form of mountain peaks which rose over the waves and symbolized abode of the Immortals, the mythic Islands of the Blessed. Some burners rested on small pen dish to either catch hot embers or hold miniature symbolic ocean. Some boshanlu may have also served as three-dimensional maps of known or unknown lands.
* China sanctioned official trade in silk w/foreigners in 2nd cent. B.C.E .  (67)
* Yayoi culture (300 B.C.E. -300 C.E. ) resulted from introduction of wet cultivation of rice, iron and bronze metalworking, and potter's wheel from China and Chinese colonies in Korea. Shinto has kami (divine forces) in nature and virtues of loyalty and wisdom. (68)
* Chinese magician/physician Xu Fu sent c.221 B.C.E. here w/600 youths in quest for Elixir of Life at magical island in Eastern Sea. (69)
* By 15 B.C.E., Roman-style propagation pots in use in Jericho. Shaped like upside-down bottles w/holes perforated near the necks and packed w/soil, these would hold a young branch or shoot for two years until rooting occurred. Then separation would be made from parent plant and transplantation to new location would be made.
* Romans seem to have invented art of topiary around end of first cent. B.C.E.  Metal one-piece spring hand-shears, an essential tool for trimming bushes into geometric shapes, were used for topiary work since at least this time. (70)
0 * About 2 C.E. , Buddhist missionaries from Bactria court visited the Han court. (71)

EASTERN HAN DYNASTY (25-220 C.E.)

* Confucianism now became entirely divorced from ancient magical rites of wu sorcerer/psychic priests who had been assisting in rituals for over fifteen centuries. (72)
* Daoism, with its doctrine of non-action, its mysticism -- including recreating magical sites in minature to focus these properties -- and its disregard of rites and ceremonies esteemed by Confucians, was deeply rooted along with wu in cultural life of ordinary people. (73)
* Period of great creativity in imperial gardening and development and growth of private, residential gardens as smaller versions thereof. (74)
* By this time, bronze trees (some w/ceramic bases) were grave objects typical of Sichuan province and southwest China. These so-called "money trees" consisted of trunk from which sprouted many branches, each bearing depictions of Daoist immortals, figures and animals who had associations w/afterlife. On branches were replicas of contemporary coinage, presumably so deceased person would have access to endless supplies of money in afterlife. May have also embodied concept of Enlightenment if they were associated w/bodhi tree and Buddhism. (Approx. 12 cm high ones would be made of gold during Tang in Chang'an. Trees bearing jewels are widely known in other Asian civilizations. Indian description 'silver trunk, gold branches, emerald leaves, pearls for fruits' was possibly most influential in China. Han Wudi's imperial hunting park described as being planted w/ten [full-sized] trees of white silver and ten of yellow silver.) (75)
* By 83 C.E., amber being imported from Burma.  Its "magical" property (static electricity) allowed amber to pick up mustard seeds. (76)
* In 57 C.E. first embassy from this Land of Wa reached Luoyang court and paid tribute to Han Emperor. (Wa was comprised of about hundred separate tribal communities without writing or political cohesion.) (77)
* Romans saw trees in pots in Egypt, brought back idea and there was craze in Rome for growing trees in pots, especially lemons and oranges.
* Although topiary art [would come] to mean plant sculpture by Renaissance period, the word topia/topiarius had other meanings in antiquity, one of which was "miniature gardens," such as those found in the peristyles (columned porch or open colonnade in building that surrounds court that may contain an internal garden) of Roman houses. These miniature gardens were probably derived from landscapes in bas-relief on certain courtyard walls that date back to Hellenistic times... Some of houses at Pompeii (dating no later than 79 C.E.) had mural paintings of gardens, illusionistic wall paintings that added false perspective to enclosed gardens; others had, in addition, three-dimensional miniature landscapes... Also found there was a little house having wall with flues to allow heat from stove in house to warm the bricks and thus the air, and tiers of masonry on which plants plants would be displayed. There are also indications of the existence of a screen of rough glass or mica: this was an early version of a greenhouse. On Pliny's Tuscan estate dwarf trees and gardens were laid out in imitation of country scenes. Art was elaborate, highly stylized and sometimes over-the-top status symbol for sybaritic villa life, complex and labor-intensive, appealing to Roman sense of taste and achieved by Roman dependance on slavery. Clipped box, cypress, or dwarf plane trees could display name of gardener or owner of villa, or could represent animals, battles and heroic characters from history and mythology, obelisks, and all sorts of images. (78)
100
C.E.
* 107, Han history reference to 160 prisoners of war sent by Japan to China as tribute to acquire bronze implements and iron ore which the island peoples needed from the mainland. (79a)
* Parthian crown prince An Shi-gao fled to China c.148 and began systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, including material on dhyana (use of various meditational exercises as a way to enlightenment). So-called Dhyana school of early Chinese Buddhism began, and translations sometimes used Daoist terminology to convey non-physical concepts. Also, floral altar decorations were introduced and floral designs started to become dominant force in Chinese art. (79b)
* China (as Seres) was beginning to be shown on Roman maps. (80)
* An embassy, sent by Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 166 C.E  returned from China w/gift of Chinese human dwarfs for Roman emperor and, perhaps, it is no coincidence that dwarf statuary long remained popular as garden art. Trade throughout Indian Ocean was extensive from 2nd cent., and many trading ports w/links to Roman communities have been identified in India and Sri Lanka along route used by Roman mission. (81)
200

THREE KINGDOMS period (220-280)

SIX DYNASTIES period (in south, 265-589), including JIN DYNASTY (265-420)

* Legend of Fei Jiang-feng who had "power of shrinking and collecting in urn mountains and streams... trees and rivers." Would be retold through Tang and Song dynasties.
* Pre-Tang literature also frequently mentioned aberrations of vital fluids of Nature, such as stones shaped naturally like living creatures: tortoise, horse, man, or the Buddha, and fossiliferous rocks containing "stone swallows" and other monsters. In addition, there was mass of folklore about haunted stones in wild rugged places, curiously shaped rocks associated w/dragons, devils, saints, and gods. (82)
* More than thirty states had been united by shamaness-queen Pimiko, who presided over complex culture and c.239 established diplomatic relations with Chinese Wei dynasty (220-264). (83)

300
* At beginning of century, royal family of Western Jin moved from Luoyang to Nanking on lower southern reaches of Yangzi, where very favorable climate and soils permitted making of spectacular gardens -- still using Han techniques. (84)
* 304, text describes earliest known use of biological pest control: carnivorous reddish-yellow ants to attack insects which damage mandarin oranges. (Seventeen centuries later would be subject of study in West.) (85)

SIXTEEN KINGDOMS period (in north, 316-589)

* In 4th and 5th cent., immense expansion of Buddhism in northern China, area being in contact w/Central Asiatic trade route which communicated w/India. Buddhism and Daoism- wu directed their appeal to magical side of human nature which was neglected by Confucian orthodoxy. Former two faiths located their temple sites in forests or near mountains and were enhanced by traditional gardening arts. (86)
* Indian Ayurvedic texts were translated into Tibetan and Chinese by this time. (87)

* 313, Korean Koguryo Kingdom overthrew Chinese military colony at Lelang. Paekche Kingdom to south sought help from Yamato region (Japan) for assistance in troops and supplies. Kaya region of southern peninsular coast was Yamato's entire source of iron at time, so Yamato helped stop Koguryo's southern push. (88)
* 372, Buddhism brought into Korea from China. (89)
400
* By 406, ginger was such a favorite spice that it was being grown in pots onboard ships so it could be eaten fresh. (90)
* Private gardens first created now, grew from striving for spiritual freedom, as opposed to materialistic pleasure that motivated building of imperial gardens and parks. Scholars became hermits in opposition to the status quo, escaping society in order to preserve their integrity. Private garden based on Daoism -- 'simple, formless, desireless, without striving' -- was articulation of desire for graceful, happy, long life in retirement -- but also was expression of denial, self-protection, and seclusion in response to buffetings of unstable and chaotic society. Remote but scenic places were chosen for beautiful villas of high artistic quality, self-sustaining and made to imitate and complement nature, including creation of scenes using rocks, trees, and water. (91)
* A scholar familiar with Chinese religious writings, Wang-In (Wani), spent time here as early as 404 when he brought ten copies of Analects of Confucius. (92)
* Around 400, the chrysanthemum was introduced from China. (93)
* From 421 - 478, King of Wa sent tribute to Southern Court in China. (94)
* Japan's most sacred spot, Ise shrine, dates from this century. Was consecrated to sun-goddess, supposed ancestress of emperor. Its open pebble enclosure is called yuniwa, "purified space of ground." Derived from this is niwa, a space of ground "set aside for special purposes," which could be religious or political. Some of these would become gardens, present-day meaning of niwa. (95)

500
* Use of air-layering as method of propagation recorded by this time. (96)
* Monk Bodhidarma (c. 470-543?) opposed Indian Buddhist practice, which had developed along more doctrinaire and ritualistic lines, turning away from meditation and concept of each person's ability to possess and know his/her own Buddha nature. Bodhidharma set out to discover how he might restore this essential component and travelled widely. Quest eventually took him to Shaolin temple in Henan, China, where after nine years of sitting meditation he conveyed his teachings to monk Huike (487-593). Chan-na (aka Chan ) school of Buddhism thus originated when Bodhidarma-brought Indian dhyana teachings merged w/Chinese Daoism. Chan maintained its more active, vital spirit even as other Buddhist sects were becoming more rigidly formalized. (97)
* c.550, preface to otherwise undistinguished Ancient Painters' Classified Record by Xie He contains "Six points to consider when judging a painting" which formed pivot around which all subsequent criticism in China has revolved. These principles were also integrated into gardening arts of Southern China. (98)
* Frequent communications and trade w/India and Persia from this time. (99)

SUI DYNASTY (581-618)

* By 552, Chinese Buddhism introduced imto Japan and first monastery established 35 years later. (100)
* Incense stand similar to boshanlu was sent from China to Empress-Regent Suiko (b.554, r.592-628). (101)
* Also in 552, silkworms smuggled out of China in bamboo tubes, along w/secrets of industry to Byzantine emperor Justinian in Constantinople. (102)
600
* "Grand Canal" involved rebuilding existing canals (including from Chang'an to north China Plains) and digging new channels to link Yangzi and Yellow rivers, and continuing south of Yangzi across to eastern plains as far as Hangzhou in Zhejiang province. Result was world's largest artificial waterway. (Canal still in use today.) Now possible for product of northern kilns to be marketed in populous region around mouth of Yangzi, and vice-versa for celadons of Zhejiang and Jiangsu to come northwards and to rob northern kilns, particularly those of Henan, of their incentive to technical progress. (103)

TANG DYNASTY (618-906)

* 621, Imperial bureau established for manufacture of porcelain. Technology would advance further during this dynasty. (104)
* Mid-century, court painter Yan Liben's Tribute Offered by a Vassal depicted a scene of at least twenty-five foreigners presenting gifts to the emperor, including long columns of rock riddled w/hollows and exquisitely shaped rocks apparently as miniature landscapes. Earliest known depiction of these from anywhere. Also, oldest written references to miniature landscapes date from this time, but these indicate such landscapes were already developed and in fashion. First major influx of foreigners into rebuilt capital city of Chang'an occurred in 630 when Eastern Turks were defeated by Tang dynasty army and thousands of Turkish families moved to city to live. Rulers of neighboring empires would often send their children to live in Chang-an as pledge of their loyalty. (105)
* Shen-xiu (605?-706) founded so-called Northern School of Chan, which was strongly marked by traditional Indian Meditation Buddhism. At end of century received patronization of Empress Wu (who found it politically opportune to side w/school of Buddhism that deviated from position of established schools). Northern School, however, declined and died out after few generations. (106)
* Suiko's nephew, Prince Regent Shotoku (573-621), promulgated 17-article constitution, sent large embassy in 607 to China (start of two century tradition of scholarly missions and intercourse), and added house figure to incense stand: thought to be beginning of bonkei. (107)
* Censer crowned w/small rock representing sacred Chinese/Buddhist mountain was received by way of Korea.
* Craftsmen from Korea constructed several replicas of this sacred mountain for Court, some copies placed next to temples, others smaller sized. (From late 4th to mid-7th cent. Japan adventured into Korea through generations of sporadic fighting and intrigue involved w/incessant warfare among three Korean kingdoms and dozens of smaller states there. Much loot, tribute and presents gotten, along w/Korean aristocratic elites and artisans and some Chinese craftsmen. Japanese Iron Age Yamato standard of living tremendously accelerated because of all of this.) (108)
* Buddhism established as official religion in 624.
* Government, literature, and culture based on Chinese model. (109)
* An envoy sent by Shotoku to China for cultural guidance returned w/also appreciation of Buddhistic practice of floral altar worship. After Prince Regent died, this Ono-no-imoko retired from Court and started to formulate basic rules of arranging flowers w/stylized designs at Rokkaku-do temple. First school of arrangement came into existence, Ikenobo. (There were two hundred Japanese participating in diplomatic missions to China at this time.) (110)

YAMATO period (645-711)

* Between 652 and 798, eastern Roman emperor sent 7 diplomats to Chinese capital Chang-an, Arabian caliph sent 36, and Persia sent 29. (111)
* 660, Shilla Kingdom allied w/China to overthrow Paekche Kingdom; Koguryo fell shortly afterwards in 668. Despite Chinese Tang influences and Buddhism, Korea peninsula-ruling Shilla remained largely tribal in culture. Dwarf potted trees were introduced from China to Korea during this time. (112a)
* 679, creation by China of the protectorate general of An Nam (Vietnam). (Au Lac kingdom had been vassal of China since 196 B.C.E. and was annexed in 111 B.C.E. ) (112b)
700
* Hui-neng (638-713) founded so-called Southern School of Chinese Chan w/radical rejection of mere book learning and down-to-earth practicality combined w/dry humor. Gave Chan, which had been traditional Indian Buddhism, typical Chinese stamp at least as strongly marked by Daoism as by Buddhism. (113)
* c.706, Crown Prince Zhang Huai's tomb paintings included depictions of two ladies-in-waiting offering penjing, miniature rockery landscapes in shallow dishes.
* Relations w/some 70 countries and regions; height of what one day would be called Silk Road trade along vast overland network of local trade connections stretching to Mediterranean Sea. (Route had been in use since prehistoric times.) Capital of Chang'an was one of world's political, economic and cultural centers. At 80 sq. km. area, was largest city in world w/one million inhabitants + one million more in metropolitan areas. Zhang Huai's tomb (above) depicts on eastern wall ambassadors from eastern Roman empire, Korea, and northeastern regions, while western wall shows ambassadors from Dashi (now Arabia), Tibet, and Gaochang (near Turfan in Xinjiang province). (114)
* Second greatest poet Du Fu (712-770) had description of rock landscape shrunk into the space of one cubic foot. (115)
* Development of private gardens reached its maturity as scholar-hermits no longer felt compelled to venture into wilderness as their only means of "escaping" society. Instead, they built urban and suburban dwellings for themselves and led secluded life of art and poetry writing. Luoyang at century's end had more than thousand private gardens scattered throughout city and its suburbs. Capital of Chang'an had even greater amount of gardens. (116) 		* In 702, great University for promotion of Medicine, Astrology and other Chinese sciences established at seat of government. (117)

NARA period (712-793)

* 717, botanical garden added to University. (118)
* Other gardens being built were called shima ("islands"), scaled down models of sea and island scenery -- and ancient Chinese Islands of the Blessed. (119)
* c.759, Man'yōshū, earliest anthology of Japanese poetry speaks of world of mountains, rivers, flora and fauna in anthromorphic terms, animistic terms, investing each entity with living personality infused w/kami, or mysterious spiritual energy and presence. As no area of island nation is more than seventy miles from sea, mountains are always in view, and rainfall is ample, always was strong awareness of beauties of nature among people here. This anthology codified and molded Japanese infatuation w/natural world different from Chinese view and would influence poetry through the centuries. (120)

HEIAN period (794-1185)
* c.795, regulations for the administration of towns in Charlemagne's empire list seventy-three plants and fruit-trees which were recommended to be grown. (121)
800 * Pai-chang Huai-hai (720-814) founded Chan monastic tradition by establishing precise rules for life and daily routine. Chan masters and their students had hitherto been "guests" in monasteries of other Buddhist schools and had adhered to monastic rules of these schools. Independent Chan monasteries were now possible because of new rules which stressed importance of combining meditative practice w/daily work in monastery and in fields. Pai-chang is not known for his organizational talent alone, rather primarily for his Chan realization and his great wisdom. (122)
* As power of Tang emperors declined, anti-Buddhist movement arose, first among Daoists and then Confucian officials and scholars. Buddhism seen as foreign religion, and there was much resentment at immense land and wealth monasteries had acquired. With 845 ban on foreign merchants, religions, etc., many monasteries closed and either demolished or converted to other use; much reduced number of monks. Buddhism would continue in China and at times flourish (under foreign Yuan and Qing dynasties) but never again attain immense prestige and status it enjoyed at its zenith in early Tang. (123)
* Han Yu (768-824) wrote verse in praise of dwarf potted landscape. (124)
* Bai Zu Yi (aka Po Chü-i, 772-846) wrote verse about miniature mountain landscape. (125) 		* Saichō (767-822), founder of Tendai school of Buddhism, first broached subject of Buddhahood for nonsentient beings by affirming that "trees and rocks have Buddha-nature." (126)
* During early years, most of NW part of capital was a settlement of naturalized Koreans and Chinese who had come as craftsmen, architects, and garden makers to help build this new city. Centerpiece of Heian courtly life would be palace and its garden. (127)
* Art of arranging flowers spread from temples to courts of nobles and feudal lords. Evolved was more artistic system w/formal and elaborate designs, heavily vested in rituals and religious concepts. Structure was composed of three radical lines based on Confucian teachings that "Man identifies himself w/Heaven and Earth." (128)
* 838, last diplomatic mission to China had up to six hundred Japanese, including monk Ennin who wrote diary of his visit. Japanese had conceived of these missions as being from one equal to another and never conceded any superiority to Chinese emperor, hence size of these affairs. (129)

900 FIVE DYNASTIES period (907-960)

NORTHERN SONG DYNASTY (960-1127)

* By this time, China had lost control of ancient silk route to Uighur and Tangut states. To compensate for loss of tax revenue, Song embarked on program of maritime trade, building ships and exporting products throughout south-east Asia. (130)

* 965, Tao Gu's Qing-i-lu, collection of expressions from Tang and Five Dynasties, included story about malachite rock which resembled a mountain, was purchased for thousand pieces of gold, and was made into boshanlu, and also about little model of Mount Li (the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di, d.207 B.C.E. ) w/landscape, houses, people, animals, forests, bridges, and highways all represented in detail in Borneo camphor wood. (131)
* Because of political instability in China during this time, Japan suspended official missions to mainland, and divergence in Chinese and Japanese art occurred. This independence allowed artistic patronage to grow in Japan during next four centuries or so. (132)
* Ryōgen (912-985), Tendai abbott, authored treatise "Account of How Plants and Trees Desire Enlightenment, Discipline Themselves, and Attain Buddhahood." (133)
* c.970, first lengthy work of fiction in Japanese, Utsubo monogatari (The Tale of the Hollow Tree), includes passage: "A tree that is left growing in its natural state is a crude thing. It is only when it is kept close to human beings who fashion it w/loving care that its shape and style acquire the ability to move one." Idea was already established by this time that natural beauty becomes true beauty only when modified in accordance w/human ideal. (134) 		* 918, Koryo Kingdom succeeded Shilla on Korean peninsula. (135)
* 939, Vietnamese forces under Ngo Quyen took advantage of chaotic conditions in China to defeat local occupation troops and set up independent state. History was again recorded and kept. Miniature landscape art -- which may have existed for centuries -- was mentioned in books for first time, including Hòn Non Bô (lit., "island-mountain-panorama"; aka nui non bô) designed to be seen from all sides. People, even the poorest, placed rocks and plants surrounded by water in containers or basins originally carved from stone, then formed from stucco, followed by use of concrete. Individuals' Hòn Non Bô could be a foot or two in height (sometimes aka Tiêu Canh, art of miniscenes where tree is main subject and larger than mountains). Royalty built larger versions up to 20 or 25 feet high (w/mountains always larger than backdrop trees), almost always including one or more in grounds of their palaces and temples to form a part of the sacred enclosure. At some point these were oftentimes accompanied by parallel verses in Chinese, stereotyped quotations that everyone knew -- including the humble village literati -- thanks to popular collections of expressions for use on various occasions, and also incense sticks and some miniature figurines. This was done even after Ngo Quyen's death ushered in period of civil strife. (136)
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* Between tenth and twelfth centuries, Buddhist monks are said to have carried p'en tsai (trees taken from natural surroundings and replanted, just as they were, in ornamental pots) throughout Far East. (137)
* Su Shi, aka Su Dongpo (1037-1101), literatus who mastered virtually all literary and artistic forms, had at least three poems mentioning container landscapes. One of his favorite objects, bronze basin given to him by Korean diplomats, probably in 1072 when he was magistrate in Hangchou, held green rock he acquired in 1092 in Yangchou which was in the shape of inverted hu and had cavity that penetrated through to back of stone. The pebbles surrounding base of rock were collected by him from beaches of Tengchou, on Shantung coast in 1085. For Su Shih, shape of rock recalled Chou-chih, one of sacred mountains of Daoism which was immortalized by Tang poet Du Fu. (138)
* Treatise Sakuteiki by Tachibana no Toshitsuna (d.1094), codified generations of rules/taboos for garden-design. Refers to Japanese painters of previous two centuries who were also expert in disposition of garden rocks. This expertise was not simply aesthetic, but was also related to understanding of what was propitious or objectionable. Includes immensely detailed instructions for treatment of water and how it should flow. (139)
* 1009, under the astute leadership of several dynamic rulers, Ly dynasty ruled Vietnam for more than 200 years (to 1225). Although rise of Ly reflected emergence of lively sense of Vietnamese nationhood, Ly rulers retained many of political and social institutions that had been introduced during the period of Chinese rule. Confucianism continued to provide foundation, Chinese civil service examination system was retained as means of selecting government officials, and eventually right was extended to include most males, not just members of nobility. Beneath veneer of Chinese fashion and thought, popular mostly among the upper classes, native forms of expression continued to flourish. Temples were built w/Hòn Non Bô to commemorate deeds of kings who ruled 968-1005. (140)
1100 * Zhang Zeduan's painting Peeping at the Bath included surprisingly modern-looking small pine in quatrefoil pot. Earliest depiction of cloud-layer shaped foliage -- essentially Chinese form of topiary. (141)
* Emperor Huizong (r.1100-1126), talented painter and expert cultivator of plants, was one of chief collectors of stones for imperial gardens. At times barges bearing his large stones blocked all other traffic on canals around capital. He also charged an official to confiscate fine stones and old landscape trees from private gardens throughout the land. (142)
* c.1126, Du Wan's Yun Lin Shi Pu (Stone Catalogue of Cloudy Forest), China's earliest and most comprehensive book about scholars' rocks, listed a hundred and fourteen different kinds of rocks found in all parts of country suitable for viewing and admiring. Specimens could be cleaned or even cut flat for stability. Also mentioned that "Dwarf trees are planted on rocks of K'un-shan county, or sweet flags (Acorus) are grown in odd spots on them, or else they are placed in containers." and "'Vertical' varieties of this [Chiang-chou] stone are made into tasteless [sic] miniature gardens, called 'bowl mountains' (pen shan), w/pieces glued in formal array, like offerings on a Buddhist altar. These are sold by the natives." (143)

SOUTHERN SONG DYNASTY (1127-1279)

* Wang Shipeng wrote about small pine growing over a rock. (144)
* Zhao Xigu's Dong Tian Qing Lu said to have introduced techniques for miniature landscape creation. Sung Dynasty specimens were divided into categories of "tree scene" and "mountain and river landscape" styles. Included renowned drawing entitled "Eighteen Scholars" which prominently shows penzai and penjing. (145)
* Lu You (1125-1210) wrote about fist-sized mountain in container. (146)
* Problem of garden design was not in material form, composition, or shape, but was far more question of exercising one's poetic sense. (147)

KAMAKURA period (1185-1333)

* 1195, Saigyo Monogatari Emaki was earliest known scroll to depict dwarfed potted trees.
(Some sources say this dates from 1250.) (148)
* Whipped tea was introduced from China at end of century and was initially drunk in Zen Buddhist temples. (149)
* During the Koguryo era (Koryo Period, 918-1392) of Korea, dwarf trees potted in native-made containers were depicted in old drawings. (Celadon pottery was perfected here during this time.) (150)
* Abu Zakariya Yahya Ibn Muhammad Ibn Al-Awwan (fl.end of 12th cent.) in Seville (Spain) authored most important Islamic treatise on agriculture during mediaeval times, Kitab al Filahah. Book treats more than 585 plants and deals w/cultivation of more than 50 fruit trees. It also discusses numerous diseases of plants and suggests their remedies. The book presents new observations on properties of soil and different types of manures. Said to also include information on container plant culture. (151)

1200 * High point for art influenced by Chan school, which believed that Buddha-nature was present in every aspect of universe, from smallest plant to greatest tree, from lowliest worm to humankind. This enormously enlarged subject matter of painting. (152)
* Chao Meng-chien's Old Lao-zi was illustration of one of "Twenty-Four Stories of Filial Piety" which would be memorized by generations of Chinese children. Two possible penjing were shown. (153)
* 1275, Wu Zimu's Meng Liang lu mentions that dwarf trees and dwarf evergreens were used as décor in Hangzhou tea-houses, supplied by members of dwarf tree guild. (154)

YUAN (MONGOL) DYNASTY (1279-1368)

* Though they brutally massacred some 35 million people -- they believed that city-dwellers were somehow inferior to nomadic people of the steppes -- as the Mongols moved further south, they became increasingly isolated from their tribal brethren to west and were soon consciously building gardens in Chinese style patterned after precepts of Song landscape painting. Scholar-painters became so alienated from capital of Cambulac and its culture that gulf opened between court painting and that of literati, so-called scholar-amateur artists. (This gulf would survive until end of Qing dynasty.) (155) 		* When Mongols gradually took over China, many artists and intellectuals found comfortable life and recognition in Japan where Song dynasty culture was actively studied and Chan underwent innovation to Zen. Song landscape paintings had not yet been imported on large scale, though priests were welcomed by culture that went w/Japan's. Active trade and cultural exchanges w/China hastened transmission of Zen Buddhism, which won quick and wide acceptance by emerging samurai class. Chinese Chan monks came over to teach at monasteries. Rinzai Zen first transmitted to Japan in 1191, and initially spread through upper ranks of military classes of Kamakura and Kyoto, then to imperial household and court aristocrats. Sōtō Zen came in 1228 to Fukui prefecture and developed its power base among landed gentry and upper classes of regional Japan. One of monks' activities was to introduce political leaders of day to art of suiseki as being ideal accomplishment for man of taste and learning. (Cause of dwarfed potted trees probably similarly promoted.) Under influence of Zen, artistic appreciation of stones started to change to subtle, profoundly quiet, serene, austere, and unpretentious. (156)
* 1225, Trân dynasty ruled Vietnam (to 1400) and repelled invading Mongol forces of Yuan Dynasty in 1258, 1285, and 1288. Most of magnificent palaces destroyed in process, so were rebuilt, complete w/Hòn Non Bô, using labor of enemy collaborators. (157)
* c.1280, area called "Pomerium" where some tree and herbaceous plant species grew was set aside for beginning of Vatican Gardens in Rome. (158)
1300 * By 14th cent., rocks would be shown on carved wooden stands and two distinct styles evolved that persist to present time. Southern style stands, which include carving of natural root, can be heavy and grandiose in design, and Northern style, which exhibit lower profile w/more subtle contours. (Japanese would embrace Northern style of Chinese wooden stands, refining them to simpler and smoother design called daiza.) (159)
* In early 1330s outbreak of deadly bubonic plague occurred in China as rodent fleas transmitted disease to people who rapidly infected other people. Moved w/Mongols westward to Tartars. Mongol conquest disrupted farming and trading, and led to widespread famine. Population dropped from approximately 120 to 60 million w/plague estimated to have killed one-third of Chinese population. (From 1333 to 1337 terrible famine killed 6 million.) (160)
* 1366, Tao Zong-i's Zhuo-geng-lu included famous painter Mi Fu's (1051-1107) drawing of inkwell in form of mountain made from precious rock dating from Southern Tang (923-934). (161)

MING DYNASTY (1368-1644)

* Destitute farmers employed to repair watercourses and reservoirs; large areas of land were repopulated w/people from other areas; millions of trees were planted including larger varieties for construction purposes; it was made compulsory for farming families to plant smaller trees such as mulberry, persimmon, and jujube for fruit or leaves for silkworms. (162a)
* New theory of landscape painting evolved which called for vivid presentation of emotional expression in artist's work. This new spirit, coupled w/overpopulation across the country, greatly influenced garden design in urban setting. Method called "small as large" was adopted, giving the perception of vast space through modest garden design on limited urban site. (162b) 		* 1309, wooden tray and dish-like pots w/dwarf landscapes on modern-looking wooden shelf/benches in Kasuga-gongen-genki scroll. These show off owner's wealth and were probably exotics imported from China. (163)
* c.1331, criticism of interest in curiously twisted specimens of potted plants in one chapter of 243 chapter compilation, Tsurezuregusa. (This would be sacred teaching handed down from master to student through limited chain of poets (some famous) until it was widely published in early 17th cent. It had modest influence before then.)

MUROMACHI period (1333-1573)

* Tengan Eko (1273-1335) composed poem on miniature pine. (164)
* "Bonseki no Fu" ("Tribute to Bonseki") written by celebrated priest and master of Chinese poetry, Kokan Shiren (1278-1346). (165)
* 1351, dwarf trees displayed on poles portrayed in Boki Ekotoba scroll. (166)
* Potted landscape arrangements were by this time including figurines after Chinese fashion to add scale and theme. (167)
* Ryushu Shutaku (1309-1388) declared in poem that simple dwarf potted pine can contain within itself highest peak of Heng Shan (which was celebrated for its aged pine trees). (168) 		* European towns now saw proliferation of private gardens. Largest gardens were still those in monasteries. (169a)
* 1315, unusually rainy weather in spring resulted in universal crop failures in Europe lasting through 1322. Some 10%-25% of population of many cities and towns died. Europe did not fully recover until 1322. Period marked by extreme levels of crime, disease and mass death and infanticide, w/consequences for Church, State, European society and future calamities to follow. Ended unprecedented period of population growth that had started around 1050. (169b)
* In Tuscany, a villa had "a thousand different kinds of gaily coloured flowers, and surrounded by a line of flourishing bright green orange and lemon trees" by mid-century. Though since rebuilt, it also has a lemon house where the trees were taken in winter. (169c)
* Since China was one of world's busiest trading nations, outbreak of "Great Pestilence" (Black Death) plague soon spread to western Asia and Europe, possibly through Black Sea to Italy by 1347. After five years 25 million people were dead -- at least one-third of Europe's people (20% in north to close to 80% around Mediterranean). Even when worst was over, smaller outbreaks continued, not just for years, but for centuries -- this incurable disease did not disappear until 1600s. Medieval society never recovered from results of the plague. So many people had died that there were serious labor shortages all over Europe. This led workers to demand higher wages, but landlords refused those demands. By end of 1300s peasant revolts broke out in England, France, Belgium and Italy. Disease took its toll on the church as well. People throughout Christendom had prayed devoutly for deliverance from plague. Unanswered prayers birthed new period of political turmoil and philosophical questioning. (170)
* Trees in Thai gardens sometimes clipped to form strange, gnarled shapes, probably originally influenced first by Chinese pen zai in Sukhothai era (c.12 cent.-1357) and later, in Ayutthaya period (1357-1767) by Japanese dwarf potted trees. Nine popular mai dat (literally, "wood that is bent") designs evolved. In pot or as part of landscape, angular and abstract, and like traditional Thai floral arrangements, mai dat amounts to re-creation rather than imitation of nature. Khao mor, probably also of Chinese inspiration, were artificial mountains made of pebbles or stones cemented together to form whole, often w/waterfalls and pools and adorned w/mai dat or ordinary plants. These may be miniature versions in shallow pots or sizeable creations incorporated into garden designs. (171)
* 1392, Chosun (Yi) dynasty overthrew Koguryo on Korean peninsula. (172)
1400 * Building of huge fleet of fully self-sufficient treasure ships and support vessels consumed vast amounts of timber. Epitome of five centuries of ocean-going expeditions caused parts of China, Annam, and southern Vietnam to be denuded of hardwoods. Dredging and reconstruction of Grand Canal linking the north and south of China and building of Forbidden City in Beijing similarly required large amounts of wood for grain barges which brought food to laborers and guards who watched over them. Fuel also needed to fire many kilns producing enormous quantities bricks and tiles (and large quantites of porcelain exported). Grain shortages and famine occurred in other parts of China. Trade with and tribute from other states was at all time high; botanical knowledge and number of plant species recorded far surpassed anything in European circles -- as well as printing of many works for sale in Beijing. Insurrection began in far south. Domestic troubles besides impossibly high deficit spending were highlighted when lightning ignited and burnt parts of grandiose Forbidden City. When Emperor soon died afterward and his son also after only year on throne in 1425, grand expansion plans were curtailed, further maritime expeditions cancelled, and an embargo on overseas trade and travel was put into effect for next hundred years. (173)
* Terra cotta containers were first crafted. Many of these dark pots were mostly made from iron sand or rough sand and used to cultivate flowers. Plain in appearance, these pots were artistically succinct and tasteful, and are noted for their bold lines. Seals or inscriptions on the container bottom are rare. Wood stands were mostly used for indoor display. Red sandlewood was prime material of choice, followed by mahogany and then redwood. Teak, camphor, ginkgo, boxwood, and Chinese jujube were also used. As w/all furniture of this dynasty, emphasized were "lines": smooth and easy, w/color imparting a sense of dignity and shape was simple, often straight lines enhanced by shaped and beaded borders. There is usually minimal carved decoration which incorporates flowers, flowering vines, leafy tendrils, dragons, beaded edges and shaped mouldings. Bold simplicity of economy of lines becomes vehicle for displaying the decorative elements. (174)
* 1402, first tourist party arrived from China to view gardens of Kyoto (world's earliest organized international garden-visiting tour). (175)
* HachiNoKi ("The Potted Trees"), Noh play by Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1444), based on story from c.1383 about impoverished samurai who sacrificed his three last dwarf potted trees to provide warmth for travelling monk on winter night.
* Bonsan tray landscapes, suggestive of awe-inspiring landscape scene, became kind of craze, and were appreciated by Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490), as well as clergy and military elite, including 1463 visit by that shogun to Kyoto-based Five Monasteries group's display of tray landscapes. Stones in pots shown in Kundaikan Sayuchoki (Comments on Ashikaga Yoshimasa's Art Collection, which also contains names of Chinese painters) and Nōami's Muromachi-Dono Gyoakō Okazariki (Record of Objects Displayed in Ashikaga Yoshinori's Residence for Visit of Emperor Go-Hanazono in 1437). Illustrations of favored bonseki in other works as well. (176)
* Zen monks developed preference for stones stripped of all distracting elements and unnecessary detail, more suggestive than explicit. Reduced to bare essentials, stones became means of spiritual refinement, inner awareness, and enlightenment. (177)
* Figurines in potted landscape arrangements now seen as garnishes decidely to be excluded by Japanese artists who were simplifying their creations in spirit of Zen. (178)
* An alcove ( tokonoma ) was generally found in temples in abbot's chamber by late 15th cent. in which to hang scroll paintings or display pottery or other objects like oddly-shaped rocks, incense burners, or flower arrangements. (In next two centuries, this would become feature of residential architecture as well. Prototypes can be seen in Kasuga and then Boki scrolls. With its introduction, paintings would be transformed from horizontal to vertical so they could be hung there.) (179)
* Earliest example of pure kare-sansui or dry-stone-work garden. (But said to have been defined in 11th cent. Sakuteiki.) (180) 		* 1406, Chinese Ming king ordered army to invade Vietnam and confiscate all things related to that culture, such as books and art objects, and bring back to China. Following year, interim Vietnamese ruler was caught by invaders, carnage followed, and all works of art and architecture were destroyed, including Hòn Non Bô. Later Lê Dynasty (1428-1788) rebuilt many devestated palaces; Hòn Non Bô were very popular. Miniscenes and miniature landscapes made during this period used Cycas revoluta (sago palms) on birthdays of kings, lords, and elderly high-class people. (1470, invasion launched into Champa, south of Vietnam. Centuries of earlier attacks were not successful, but this one was. Champa would retain slight independence until its annexation by Vietnam in 1832.) (181)
* Montezuma I (r. 1440-1468) created country garden in Huaxtepec, Mexico that included successfully transplanted trees and shrubs from coastal regions, and even thriving tropical species from south. (182)
* During the Yi dynasty (1392-1910), art of dwarfed potted trees became very popular in Korea and was mentioned in Chinese poetry. (183)
* Topiary revival took place by early Renaissance in Italy. Mazes, labyrinths and bowers were created in secular and chivalrous settings using box, cypress, laurel, myrtle, ilex, and yew. (184)
* 1492, hortus herbarum of Vatican was transferred onto Belvedere Hill, on NW slopes of the Vatican. Garden was subdivided into geometrical flowerbeds where medicinal plants were, probably, placed. (185)
* An Italian grew orange trees for kings of France at end of 15th and early in 16th cent. (186)
* 1499, earliest printed book w/topiary showed intimate garden spaces having both classical sculpture and topiary. Spectacular catalogue of visionary gardens contained vast range of box peacocks, hyssop spheres, pleached screens, shaped junipers in pots, and parterres of trimmed herbs. This book influenced contemporary garden design. (187)
* By this time, deforestation in Europe since about 1250 was so severe that the continent was on edge of fuel and nutritional disaster. Massive amounts of trees had been used for large-scale building of wooden sailing ships for trade and war and also massive use of charcoal on industrial scale. Now-disappearing forests due to expanding human populations no longer inhabited by generous supply of wild game. (16th cent. would see turn around because of introduction of burning of soft coal and cultivation of potato and maize.) (188)
1500 * 1506, Wang Ao's Gusu zhi mentioned pen zai as apparently specialty of Suzhou, particularly of Tiger Hill, elite resort spot to northwest and connected to Suzhou by canal, along which suburbs stretched.
* c.1547, gazetteer described types of penjing styles around Hangzhou area. (189)
* At least by this century, shops of name "Garden of Dragon Flowers," to southwest of Shanghai, became engaged in cultivating miniature trees in containers. (Would continue to present day.) (190)
* Gu Qiyuan's Kezuo zhuiyu stressed importance of "pictorial idea," as well as providing evidence that Suzhou was still considered to be source of finest exponents of art of miniature landscapes. (191)
* It is recorded that bamboo carver Zhu Xiaosong (c.1520-87, son of one of China's greatest bamboo carving masters, Zhu Sansong, poet, painter, calligrapher, and founder of Jiading School), was adept at shaping small trees for connoisseurs of penjing. (192)
* Regional variations which emerged beginning about this time would be basis for six main penjing schools in China: Lingnan School of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, Chuan School of Sichuan, Hai School of Shanghai, Su School of Suzhou, and Yang School of Yangzhou. (Between 16th and 19th cent., certain historic, cultural and economic factors led people in certain areas to shape trees into extremely rigid forms. Very strict rules were codified for each school and set them apart. Distinct styles produced by these schools would never account for more than just one strand in overall development of penjing.) (193)
* By the late 16th-early 17th cent. there were reproductions on scholars' inkstones and in catalogs thereof of Su Shi's bronze basin and green Chou-chih stone. (194)
* Private gardens reached their height of development in Ming, particularly in southeast China in such places as Suzhou, Hangzhou, and Yangzhou. In their hyday, Suzhou gardens were owned by members of literati and were not so much cultivated open spaces (as in West), but settings for buildings, both residential and purely decorative, such as pavilions and shelters. Gardens were designed to be viewed from these buildings, and in addition to trees and flowers they usually had water features, ranging from ponds to onamental rocks often dragged from bottom of large lake or river where they had been eroded into unusual shapes. Sometimes gardens were separated by buildings into two or three sections, or might incorporate small island reached by nattow bridge. Reordering of priorities had taken place where gardened landscapes were no longer for productive horticulture but to be a visually composed scene, faithful to formal canons of painting composition.(195)


* c. 1550-1850, worldwide Little Ice Age occurred.
The Little Ice Age brought bitterly cold winters to many parts of world, but is most thoroughly documented in Europe and North America. In many years, snowfall was much heavier than recorded before or since, and snow lay on ground for many months longer than it does today. Many springs and summers were outstandingly cold and wet, although there was great variability between years and groups of years. It is generally agreed that there were three minima, beginning about 1650, about 1770, and 1850, each separated by slight warming intervals. Crop practices throughout Europe had to be altered to adapt to shortened, less reliable growing season.
In China, warm weather crops, such as oranges, were abandoned in Jiangxi Province near the southeast, where they had been grown for centuries. 		* Bonseki were made using different grades of sand and stones on takazuna-bon, black-lacquered oval tray with 2"H rim. (196)
* Namban date from this time. Characteristically rough textured and warped containers, originally over-fired, deformed kiln rejects favored by connoisseurs of day who appreciated their rugged beauty. (These would be used to compliment slanting style and literati conifers as well as rugged bonsai material and grass plantings.) (197)
* Sen no Rikyu (1522-91), poet who codified tea ceremony developments of past century, included making carefully arranged naturalistic garden (cha-niwa) direct passage-way into now more austere tea-house. Consumption of tea was related to appreciation of and expression of authority through Chinese art objects. (198)
* Portuguese traders unloading miniature landscape stones and other imported Chinese goods depicted on screens. (199)
* Cycads were imported from southern Ryūkyū kingdom, were associated w/trade of Portuguese, and were extensively used in tea gardens and castle compounds. (200)

AZUCHI-MOMOYAMA period (1573-1603)

* Growing demand for tea utensils led to placing of orders at Japanese kilns, triggering extraordinary flourishing of domestic ceramic production. Orders were also placed abroad, notably in Korea and China, where ceramics were produced in distinctly Japanese taste. (201)
* Just before his doom, warlord Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) installed emblem of his divinity in Sokenji, his temple on Azuchi Hill -- "someone having brought him a stone suitable for the purpose, called Bonção " -- and guaranteed prosperity and a long life to all who came in to venerate it. In 1580 he had sent miniature landscape stone together w/fine tea bowl in exchange for Ishiyama fortress in Osaka.
* Imjin wars during last decade saw Japanese under Hideyoshi Toyotomi attempting to conquer China via Korea. Chinese intervention saved otherwise devestated peninsula, but many skilled craftsmen, especially potters, were carted off to revitalize Japanese ceramic industry. (202)
* Portuguese reached China in 1514, and then Japan in 1543. (203)
* 1520, first sample of kaolin clay from China reached Europe, brought by Portuguese. Mistakenly thought to be sole reason for porcelain's characteristics. It would be two centuries before Europeans discovered correct ingrediants on their own. (204)
* 1543, earliest European botanical garden founded at Pisa, Italy, all the herbs being grown in pots. (Teaching gardens also were established at Padua and Florence about this time.) (205)
* c.1547, living sweet orange tree was sent from China to Lisbon, Portugal by Viceroy of India. (Said to have still existed at end of 17th cent.) (206)
* By 1550 at least, Italian villas were decorated w/citrus trees grown in pots filled w/best possible compost and placed adorning terraces, walls and stairways. Winter accomodation was either indoors in a stone building, in purpose-built house in larger gardens, or in dry cave. Some trees were also planted in rows together in ground. Size and quality of fruit from these trees outweighed aesthetic considerations of plain and draughty sheds being temporarily erected every winter. Visitors found Italian gardens infinitely superior to their counterparts in Germany, France, the Low Countries and England, and returned home w/Italian concept of design and technical expertise, as well as some of basic ingrediants: myrtles, pomegranates, oleanders, oranges, and lemons. These were novelties w/in reach of nobles, merchants and kings. From simple winter quarters they could be brought out to grace parterres in summer.  (207)
* Vietnamese scholar Trang Trình (1491-1585) said to have used Hòn Non Bô to provide guidance while predicting fate or destiny of others. (208)
* 1560, Spanish settlers planted three olive saplings in Lima, Peru. (Olive from this original introduction was later taken to Chile to start South America's olive industry.)
* 1564, European grape vine was imported to California via Mexico, brought by priests. (209)
* About 1569, flowerpots, including three-inch model, were made at Spanish settlement on Parris Island, in what would be South Carolina. (210)
*c.1570, Hortus Simplicium in Rome was changed into Vatican Botanical Garden. (211)
* Watering pot w/pierced rose was invented in late Middle Ages to 'imitate the rain falling from the heavens.' Earthenware Tudor thumb pot from this time released water from holes in pierced base when thumb was removed from hole. (212)
* In 16th and early 17th cent. almost any plant seemed to have been subjected to shears for topiary in European gardens, regardless of its suitability. In addition, curious plants from abroad were sent for, to be propagated by seeds and cuttings in tubs. Shared among enthusiasts, these plants were wintered by simply being moved into frost-free outhouses or else indoors into halls or long galleries. (213)
* 1582-1590, Japanese embassy w/four young native envoys was sent to Portugal, Spain and Rome. (214)
1600 * Chinese concept of Northern and Southern Schools (so named by analogy w/two branches of Zen Buddhism, and having no geographical significance) originated w/painter-theorist Dong Chichang (1555-1636). Southern School equated, loosely, w/tradition of less realistic, more spontaneous, intuitive, individualistic, often deliberately quasi-awkward scholar-amateur artists, distinguishing them from (and elevating them above) skillful, detailed, relatively realistic, colorful, traditional, and conservative professional painters, whom he identified w/"Northern School." (Southern School was type of painting that would be praised and practiced by Chinese literati of Ming and then Qing dynasties.) (215)
* Li Rihua's Weishuixuan riji ("Ranking of Antique Objects") included "strange rocks of rugged and picturesque type" followed by "a combination of some old, elegant pines and small needle-like rushes in a fine pot" and "plum trees and bamboos that are fit for poetry."
* 1614, preface to Lin Youlin's four volume Su Yuan Shi Pu ("Stone Catalogue of the Plain Garden"), stated "...Stone collecting, in particular, is close to Chan meditation, empowering the mind to visit the Southern Palaces and Mount Jinhua."
* c.1615-1620, Wen Zhenheng's Treatise on Superfluous Things contains Tu Long's work w/detailed chapter on container landscapes and dwarf plants.
* 1630, treatise "Penjing" by Wu Chutai.
* Monograph by Liu Luan on "landscape in a container" and "very small landscapes." (216)
* Containers exported to Japan during 17th and 18th cent. would be referred to as Kowatari ("old crossing"). Extremely elegant and would harmonize well w/old dwarfed trees, these were made between 1465 and about 1800. Many came from Yixing in Jiangsu province -- unglazed and usually purplish-brown -- and some others from around Canton, particularly during the Ming. Some porcelain containers started to be used for plants now in China. (217)

QING (MANCHU) DYNASTY (1644-1911)

* 1679, first edition of Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting published. Some illustrations were in color. Mixing of colors and the varieties of brush and brush-stroke are discussed as means towards representation of the spirit of object and of scene as a whole. Likewise trees and plants should illustrate qualities which such plants embody. (Expanded version would be published in 1701. Initially regarded only as guide for beginners, recognition came slowly that this was uniquely important and comprehensive book, the Chinese painting handbook. Many editions would be printed.) (218)
* Pi-chuan Hua-ching, general botany book published in 1688, defined term penzai as "to plant into a pot" and includes entire chapter on art of penjing creation. (219) 		* 1602, Gekkei Shocho wrote poem about dwarfed pine. (220)

EDO period (1603-1868)

* 1598-1618, Hideyoshi, general, garden-lover and noted seeker of stones, rebuilt 12th cent. garden of Sambo-in temple. More than 700 rocks were brought together to make most varied and sumptuous of all Japanese stone gardens. Bushes, bridges, lanterns, cascade, streams and lakes combined to achieve ultimate cherry-viewing site. (221)
* High-ranking samurai and tea ceremony master Sansai Hosokawa (1564-1645) founded Hosokawa school of bonseki. (222)
* 1615, "Edicts of the Conduct of the Nobility" proclaimed by central Tokugawa government had this as first article: "The imperial court should keep to the arts and above all pursue learning." Nobility was thus forced to develop knowledge and the arts; perhaps only purpose for this command was to keep nobility out of politics. Although various sects of Buddhism continued to be tolerated as popular religion, official Tokugawa patronage was given to orthodox [Song dynasty Neo-]Confucianism w/its firm foundation of discipline and obedience. This resulted in training of Chinese-style scholars, many of whom developed an interest in it as part of their cultural world. (223a)
* 1619, during Tokugawa Period, there would be 154 famines, of which 21 were widespread and serious, especially 1783-87 and 1833-37. (223b)
* Shogun Iemitsu (r. 1623-1651) closed Japan entirely to most foreign commercial transactions, permitting only limited numbers of Dutch (Protestants -- as opposed to divided-loyalty-with-distant-pope Catholics) and Chinese. He was a hachi-no-ki enthusiast, however. Story tells of Okubo Hikozemon (1560-1639), councillor to shogun, who threw one of Iemitsu's favorite trees away in the garden -- right in front of shogun in order to dissuade him from spending so much time and attention on these trees. In spite of servant's efforts, Iemitsu never gave up artform he continued to love. (There is also different tale of a samurai's gardener who killed himself when his master insulted a hachi-no-ki of which the artisan was especially proud.) Daimyo ("great name" lords) were required to spend every other year in capital of Edo, as another way of keeping extra income and resources in check. Some of them, impressed w/landscapes travelled through and nearby on way from Edo to their residences, contracted to have these scenes reduced in scale and reproduced along pathways of their gardens in Edo and/or in their administrative jurisdictions. As time progressed, building of artificial miniature mountains including copies of Mt. Fuji became popular. Interaction w/Dutch led to governmental-limited specialized interest in Western medicine and astronomy (and all topics remotely associated with) in order to improve agricultural production. (224)
* Dwarf Rhapis palms were smuggled in from China and would become status symbol of ruling classes. (225)
* Emperor Go-Mizuno-o (1596-1680, r.1612-1629) helped introduce use of low-rimmed oval or rectangular trays for bonseki or the display of stones, for which he was one of best-known collectors. (226)
* As trade w/China was restricted, many kilns were established throughout Japan to supplement "six ancient kilns" (Tokoname, Shigaraki, Tanba, Bizen, Echizen, and Seto) which had existed at least since before Muromachi period. (227)
* Obaku, third of today's three Zen sects, brought over from China. By this time Sōtō was major sect and beliefs of all three were spreading into upper ranks of merchant and townspeople classes. (228)
* Chinese Confucian scholar Chu Shunsui (1600-1682) emigrated to Nagasaki to flee Manchus, bringing collection of specialist penjing literature (among other works).
* Miniature potted trees called hachi-ue in 1681 horticulture book which also stated that everyone grew azaleas, even if poorest people had to use abalone shell as container. (229)
* In latter half of century and into next, gardening and landscape gardening reached its greatest stage of development -- many wonderful varieties of plants were developed and improved and new techniques and skills were learned. (230)
* c.1688-1703, major passion in Edo for potted momiji (type of Japanese maple) resulted in extraordinary number of new varieties (many well-known of today first grown then). Interest in azaleas and camellias also from this time, followed by succession of vogues for individual flowering plants and trees. (231) 		* 1603, Portuguese-Japanese dictionary described Bonção (bonsan) as "a stone or rough piece of wood" which serves as base of miniature landscape made with "green mosses, & a tiny tree planted there, &c."
* 1604, description of how Chinese immigrants in Philippines were growing ficus onto hand-sized pieces of coral.
* 1609, account in England of orange house w/iron stove -- a Dutch invention to protect oranges in winter. (232)
* 1613-1620, Japanese trade mission of some 181 persons traveled to New Spain (Mexico) and southern Europe. (233)
* 1637, earliest-known English observation of dwarf potted trees (root-over-rock in a pan) in China/Macau.
* Before 1800, four embassies made their way to Beijing from Holland/Batavia (1656, 1667, 1686, 1795); six from Russia (1656, 1660, 1676, 1693, 1720, 1726); four from Portugal (1670, 1678, 1727, 1753); three from papacy (1705, 1720, 1725); and one from Britain (1793). However, to Chinese and Japanese eyes, embassies were about establishing formal relations of superiority and inferiority between themselves and foreign princes. Commerce, so important to Europeans, had subordinated place in the construction of relations of power and authority. And the Chinese wanted unique items as gifts from each country which could be identified as local products of various kingdoms, not mere interchangeable curiosities which Europeans mostly brought. Native products were understood in East as material signs of good leadership. (After establishment of Qing dynasty, Korean embassies visited annually for more than two centuries.) (234)
* 1664, earliest English usage of "conservatory" (place for conserving delicate plants in winter), "greenhouse" (house for evergreens), and "orangery" (area in garden for display of orange trees). (235)
* 1673, Chelsea Physic Garden (Apothecaries Garden of Simples) founded in London to grow and study plants for medicinal uses. Conservatory added seven years later for plants from warmer climes, and underfloor stove to heat this building added in 1684. (236)
* W/later 17th cent. French-inspired garden of parterres, topiary became primary component of garden design. Yew increasingly replaced cypress, partly because former was more severe winter-hardy. (237)
* Tree tubs were used at palatial château in Versailles outside of Paris by Louis XIV's gardeners to move orange trees out of cold each winter. Container was so innovative that it had cast-iron corners w/hinges, allowing gardeners to open it each spring and add fresh soil around roots. Container also had legs long enough that a cart could be wheeled under it. Trees were clipped into different shapes according to where they were to be placed: smaller ones for salons indoors and larger one for parterres. Orange trees also brought indoors at any season and put in silver tubs to symbolize Louis' power and ability to dominate everything, just as nature was dominated by man shaping delicate foreign orange tree to his will. Also demonstrated gulf between ruling élite and common man, whose survival depended on growing lettuce and onions instead.(238)
* 1692, German George Meister (1653-1713)  mentioned dwarf trees planted in rocks seen in Japan in 1680s. Earliest known European mention of this gardening activity.
1700 * Containers now had finer texture than those of Ming, and featured tremendous variety of patterns. Practice of carving calligraphy or paintings onto container surfaces dates from this time. Wooden stands and other furniture from this time emphasized "carving": wealth of complex lines, angular forms, and exquisite decorated structure. Perforations and carved flower patterns became common. Some would also have silver line decorations, engraved metal mounts or mother-of-pearl, ivory, or shell inlays. To give legitimacy to their rule, Qing court adopted well-established Ming and earlier historical designs. Such stands would be luxurious and graceful. (239)
* 1730-50, teacup and saucer depict European merchants bargaining w/Chinese in Canton shop, and, partly hidden behind wall partition, there is medium-size dwarf tree in pot on a stand.
* New crops from Americas and elsewhere were introduced, such as groundnut, sweet potato, and maize, and there was rapid growth in production of industrial crops such as tea, cotton, and sugar. (240)
* 1772, William Chamber's 92-page A Dissertation on Oriental Gardening (London), includes the observations that "'I am not ignorant,' said one of the [Chinese] artists, 'that your European planters, thinking Nature scanty in her arrangements, or being perhaps disgusted with the familiarity and commonness of natural objects, introduce artificial forms into their plantations, an cut their trees in the sapes of pyramids, flower-pots, men, fishes, and brute animas; and I have heard of colonnades, and whole palaces, formed by plants, cut as precisely as if they had been built of stone. But this is preaching variety at the expense of reason; such extravagances ought never to be tolerated, excepting in enchanted scenes; and there but very seldom; for they must be as destitute of beauty, as they are on propriety; and if the planter be a traveller, and a man of observation, he can want no such helps to variety, as he will recollect a thousand beautiful effects along the common roads of the countries through which he has passed, that may be introduced with much better success.' (pp. 42-43) and 'I have likewise seen, in Chinese plantations, walks bordered with the cut yew and elm hedges, so common in most countries in Europe, which the Chinese artists sometimes admit of, for variety's sake; but they never have the stiff appearance of our European ones; the shears are used sparingly; towards the top the branches are suffered to spread unmolested; and even in the cut parts of them are seen large masses of other plants forcing their way through; such as the sycamore, the fig, the vine, and others, whose foliage and verdure are most opposite to those of the hedge.'" (pp. 58-59) (241)
* Qian Long as a Chinese Ruler showed emperor surrounded by scholar's objets d'art, including exposed-root pine behind him and smaller dwarf potted tree at painting's edge. (242)
* 1795, Li Dou's Account of Yangzhou states that that city boasted of landscape penjing which contained water and soil. (243)
* By late 17th cent, forests throughout archipelago had been depleted due to overexploitation resulting from boom in castle construction and urban residences. 18th cent would see discussion of causes for, alternatives to, and actual reforestation. (244)
* Around this time records indicate that samurai took special interest in potted ume. (245)
* Torii Kiyoharu's woodblock prints of dwarf potted trees from horticultural expert Itō Ihei's nursery.  (246)
*  Numerous woodblock prints by several artists depicted popular Noh drama Hachinoki.
* Hakuin Ekaku (1685-1768), artist who eventually became zealous religious reformer and transformed declining Rinzai Zen into religion of Japanese people, including commoner classes. (247)
* 1748, Kai-shi-en Gaden, first Japanese edition of Mustard Seed Garden Manual published. Had elaborate color-printing of illustrations. (248)
* Nanga or Bujinga School reached full maturity beginning in 3rd quarter of this century in Kyoto-Osaka area as thriving school of painting and as lively alternative for artists and patrons who found older and more conservative schools no longer interesting. Borrowings from Chinese scholar-amateur or literati artists had by this time been assimilated into an independent Japanese school of painting w/new and visible styles of its own. Chinese scholar-artists, trained in calligraphy since childhood as part of their Confucian education, seemed to value the brushstroke above all. Japanese were more concerned w/total effect that the painting offered the viewer. Thus, Japanese brush strokes may have been unusual or imperfect at times, or fewer w/more empty space. Elements of the temporally and culturally remote Chinese painting were employed in a more decorative and playful manner that characterizes so much of later Japanese painting. Scholars, poets, calligraphers and painters came from many parts of Japan to participate in this new intellectual and artistic scene. Tended to be men who had somehow withdrawn from, or been ejected from, highly stratified and static structure of feudal society. Emphasis on individualism by Nanga school was strength, but also weakness as the greatest masters remained isolated figures w/little significant following. Nanga did not root in Edo until late century, and after that was always a somewhat hybrid plant, even less based on Chinese models. (249)
* From c.1772-1801, there was fashion for tachibana (mandarin orange) bonsai in Osaka. In 1776 one grown on flat rock was given by shogun Ieharu to a certain daimyo. (250)
* c.1781-88, a show for traditional bonsai pines was begun to be held every year in Kyoto. Connoisseurs from five provinces and the neighboring areas would bring one or two plants each to the show in order to submit them to visitors for ranking. (251)
* From 1789-1830, period when large palaces were built and surrounded by magnificent gardens, fit residences for great Tokugawa feudal lords. Great sums were expended on collecting stones from all parts of country, and often garden would be left unfinished until exact stone suited to express required feeling or to complete miniature natural scene had been procured. (252)
* 1798, work mentioning bonsan defines as "amusing onseself by reconstructing high mountains and famous rivers." (253) 		* 1706, coffee trees sent to botanical garden in Amsterdam from Sri Lanka (where Dutch had only recently managed to establish plantations, breaking an ancient Arab monopoly). Single tree survived, which was parent of a tree at conservatory in Paris. (In 1723, single offspring from Paris tree would be carried to Martinique, which yielded thousands of trees there by 1777. Martinique plantations became source of first plants to be taken to various coffee-growing regions of South America.) (254)
* 1725, book about how to dwarf trees by George Liegelsteiner, court gardener of Archbishop of Salzburg, Austria. Results look like very beautiful big trees, but only much smaller due to understanding of tree physiology: how to shorten roots and transplant trees often, how to shorten branches, etc. (255)
* 1727, English translation of notes by Engelbert Kaempfer (1651-1716)  mentioned dwarf tree growing over rock seen in Japan c.1691. French and Dutch translations followed.
* 1749, first complete description of Chinese garden published in Paris in letter from Père Attiret, one of several Jesuits employed as painter by emperor in Beijing. (256a)
* By 1750, earliest colonial-American-made flowerpot was produced in Norwich, Connecticut. (256b)
* Between 500 and 1750 C.E. alone some 187 junks drifted from Japan to the Americas on Kuroshio ("Black Current"), strong clockwise-moving waters in North Pacific, up from Taiwan, arcing past Japan and Southeast Alaska and down the northwest coast. Between 1260 and 1650, five of those junks had then been sent westward on California Current to wash up in Hawaii, their crews marrying into Hawaiian aristocracy, leaving their imprint on cultural development of those islands. (257)
* 1753, first edition of Carl Linnaeus' Species Plantarum, built on various ideas of others (including John Ray) and was primary starting point of binomial plant and animal nomenclature as it exists today.
* By second half of 18th cent. topiary had become synonymous w/all that was old-fashioned or in bad taste, and was contrary to rising natural landscape movement. Critics of frightingly egalitarian topiary actually ended up producing catalogues of ideas. Also, symmetry in gardens was abandoned and eventually picturesque, romantic landscape garden became only acceptable form. Greenhouses became architecturally beautiful decorations, less strictly adhering to classical rules. (258)
* According to popular legend, garden designer who created English landscape was "Capability" Brown, synonymous w/rolling parkland, clumps of trees, serpentine lakes and meandering paths, because Brown was so prolific that for more than three decades he zigzagged the country creating hundreds of gardens for the rich. His landscapes were at forefront of fashion, but in so doing he razed magnificent Elizabethan knot gardens, opulent baroque parterres, sculpted Renaissance terraces and marching avenues. His work was epitome of natural landscapes begun in late 17th cent. w/introduction of meandering paths which changed experience of garden visitor from "wondering" at parterres, fountains or flower displays to "wandering." Some garden owners, who were marginalised from politics, wielded power on their land and created gardens full of political or allegorical meanings. (259)
* Chinese porcelain and tea among products shipped via London (or sometimes smuggled directly) to colonial America in return for large quantities of potent and desirable Appalachian ginseng root. (260)
* 1787, HMS Bounty sailed to the South Seas, rigged up to carry 1,015 breadfruit seedlings in clay flowerpots from Tahiti to the West Indies. A watering system was devised, as was way of getting sunlight into the lower hold of the ship. Breadfruit was intended to provide cheap food for local slave labor. (Potted plants were cast into ocean during infamous mutiny in 1789. Four years after that, however, the Providence would accomplish delivery.) (261)
* 1793-94, English Ambassador Lord George Macartney made passing reference to dwarf tree culture primarily propagated via air layering seen during failed mission to Peking, and Scottish botanist James Main recorded details of making dwarfed forest-trees in Canton, including use of wire to shape stem and branches, and elm and Ficus being most common chosen for this and kept 12-15" tall, mostly in rectangular pots 12-14"x8"x5".

Timeline, Part II and NOTES
 
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